Teotihuacan (Teotihuacn, which also spelled ) is an important archaeological site of the Valley of Mexico , containing some of largest pyramid ever built Mesoamerican in America pre-Columbian. In addition to its pyramids, Teotihuacan is also known for its large residential complexes, the floor of the Dead, and numerous murals to color well kept.

The city was probably built around 200 BC , and lived until his fall between the ^sixth and ^seventh centuries. At its peak in the first half of the ^first millennium , in the classical period, Teotihuacan was the largest city in all the pre-Columbian America. At that time, she could have counted more than 200 000 inhabitants, which placed it at the time among the largest cities in the world. Civilization and cultural complex associated with the site are also known as Teotihuacan or Teotihuacano.

Although the question of whether Teotihuacan was the center of an empire is debatable, its influence in Mesoamerica is well documented evidence of the existence of the civilization of Teotihuacan, at least in its political and economic power, can be found in many sites in the Veracruz region and Maya. The ethnicity of the inhabitants of Teotihuacan is also debate. Possible candidates include ethnic groups constituted by the peoples Nahua , Otomi and Totonac. Some researchers also suggested that Teotihuacan had been a multiethnic state. Archaeological excavations have shown that Teotihuacan contained separate sections for Zapotec , and Mixtec or Maya. According to the Spanish chronicler Juan de Torquemada, the Totonac said they were builders .

The city is located at the current location of the municipalities of San Juan Teotihuacan and San Martin de las Piramides , located in the State of Mexico in Mexico , about 40 kilometers northeast of the city of Mexico and covers an area Total 82.66 km ² ( 19 41'N 98 50'W / 19,683, 98,833 ).

The website was registered at Heritage of UNESCO in 1987. This is one of the most visited archaeological sites in Mexico.

The name Teotihuacan means the city, but also a civilization whose influence, at its peak, extended to most of Mesoamerica.

Place names

The original name of the city is unknown, but it appears in the hieroglyphic texts of the Maya region as the puh, or "Place reed "This suggests that the Maya of the Classic Period Teotihuacan have considered a place where reeds grow similar to other settlements in the Postclassic period in central Mexico, which became known as Tollan , like Tula and Cholula.

This naming convention has led to much confusion in the early ^twentieth century , when researchers asked themselves what city, Teotihuacan and Tula, Tollan was described in the chronicles of the XVI ^century. It now seems clear that Tollan can be understood as a generic term applied to any Mayan large colony. In the concept of Mesoamerican urbanism, Tollan and its equivalents in other languages are used as metaphor , combining bundles of reeds and rushes that formed part of the environment lake of the Valley of Mexico at a large gathering of people in a city .

Etymology and translation

The name Teotihuacan is Nahuatl , because it was given by the Aztecs centuries after the fall of the city.

Sources differ on the etymology of the name. His translation is often abbreviated as "city of the gods" ^, because all interpretations designate a revered shrine and indicate the locative suffix-can, usually translated as "place" , "place" or "city" . This transliteration meaning "place of birth of the gods", reflecting the creation myths of the world of Nahua origin who stared at Teotihuacan. Thelma Sullivan translated this name as the "city of those who control the road leading to the gods . The name is pronounced te.o ti n waka in Nahuatl , with emphasis on the syllable wa. In Nahuatl, according to normal spelling conventions, the focus is not written in this position. The pronunciation and the Spanish pronunciation te.otiwakan are both used, and both spellings appear in this article.

Some authors rely on the assumption that the radical is composed of the verb and the particle teotia passive hua, Teotihuacan and translate to "place of deification (teotia can mean" deify ") . Another classic translation is "place of worship" or "place of worship" (after acceptance of "worship (god)" in teotia) ^, .

Some more the word cut, distinguishing teo (tl) (god) of the ligation ti. They translate from Teotihuacan "the place of those of the gods" or "place of those who worship the gods" .

Another etymology breaks down radical teo (tl) and chihua (do) . Some translations are consistent with this interpretation, "where a god is made , "" where are the gods , "" There-is-where-are-the-gods "or" place where the gods were born .

Bernardino de Sahagn this translation as an expression that made his fortune: "The place where the gods came together." Indeed, in Aztec mythology , this is the place where the gods met to create the sixth sun, of our era. The city was also referred to as Tollan, a name that will designate centuries later the capital Toltec Tula (Tollan in Nahuatl Xcohcotitln).

History

Teotihuacan and other sites of the Classical Period

Origins and foundation

The history of the founding of Teotihuacan is quite mysterious, and the origin of its founders is debated. For many years, archaeologists assumed it had been built by the Toltecs. This belief was based on texts from the colonial period, as the Florentine Codex , which attributed the site to the Toltecs. However, the Nahuatl word "Toltec" usually means "craftsman of the highest level" and can not refer only to the Toltec civilization centered on Tula. In addition, the Toltec civilization flourished for centuries after that of Teotihuacan, the people would not have been the founder of the city.

The first buildings of Teotihuacan have been dated to around 200 before our era. The largest pyramid, the Pyramid of the Sun , was completed around the year 100 AD .

The construction of the city began in Late Preclassic, circa -300. At that time, the Basin of Mexico had two major centers: Cuicuilco southwest of Lake Texcoco and Teotihuacan northeast of the lake. Where to -50 , the volcano buried Xitle Cuicuilco, Teotihuacan became the only dominant center of the valley, rising probably the population displaced by the eruption. These settlers may have founded or accelerated the growth of Teotihuacan . The Pyramid of the Sun was finished in 150. The city flourished between 150 and 450 AD. She was the center of an important civilization. The city extended over 30 km and housed a population of over 150,000 or 200,000 inhabitants. Teotihuacan controlled the large deposits of obsidian and Otumba of Sierra de las Navajas. She was also a discussion forum with other political entities of Mesoamerica, including trade of jade , the copal , the onyx , the aromatic resin from the coast of Gulf of Mexico or tail feathers of the quetzal 's coming Maya country.

Other researchers have highlighted the people Totonac as possible founder of Teotihuacan. There is evidence that at least some of the people living in Teotihuacn came from areas influenced by the civilization of Teotihuacan, including people Zapotec , Mixtec and Maya. Culture and architecture of Teotihuacn was influenced by the people, Olmec , who is considered the "mother civilization" of Mesoamerica.

Pinnacle

The city reached its zenith around 450 AD, when it was at the center of a powerful culture whose influence extended through much of Mesoamerica. At its height the city covered over 30 square kilometers and probably housed a population of over 150,000 people, maybe 250,000 . Various parts of the city harboring populations from throughout the region under the influence of Teotihuacan, extending south to Guatemala. Note the absence of fortification and military structure in the city.

The main central avenue of the city, the "avenue of the dead" (Miccaotli in Nahuatl) is still bordered by impressive ceremonial architecture, including the immense Pyramid of the Sun (the second largest pyramid in the New World after the Great Pyramid of Cholula ), Pyramid of the Moon, the Temple of Quetzalcoatl or Temple of the Feathered Serpent and many palaces and temples of lesser importance.

Platform on the floor of the dead, an example of architectural style Talud-tablero

The nature of interactions between political and cultural cities of Teotihuacan and the Maya region (as elsewhere in Meso-America) has been long a subject of considerable debate. Most of the exchanges and interactions have occurred over the centuries since the late Preclassic period until the middle of the Classical period. 'Ideologies inspired by Teotihuacan "and its culture persisted in the Maya centers during the Late Classic period, long after the decline of the city of Teotihuacan itself . However, researchers are still debating among themselves the importance of the influence of Teotihuacan and its extent. Some think that the city has had a direct military rule, other than the adoption of traits 'strangers' was part of a cultural diffusion selective, conscious and bi-directional. New findings suggest that Teotihuacan was not very different in its interactions with other capitals of the later empires, such as the Toltecs and Aztecs ^, . It is estimated that Teotihuacan had a major influence on the Maya civilization pre-classical and classical, most likely by the conquest of several Mayan centers and regions, including Tikal and the Peten region , and its influence on Mayan culture.

Jade plaque depicting a Mayan ruler found at Teotihuacan (British Museum)

The predominant architectural styles in Teotihuacan are found in a number of sites in Mesoamerica away, which some researchers have interpreted as evidence of profound interactions with Teotihuacan or political and military domination . A particular style associated with Teotihuacan known to Talud-tablero , is an architecture in which a slope on the outside of a structure (Talud) is topped by a rectangular table (tablero). Variations of this generic style meet in a number of sites in the Maya region, including Tikal , Kaminaljuyu , Copan , Becan and Oxkintok , particularly in the Petn Basin and the highlands of central Guatemala . Talud-tablero style made its first appearance at Teotihuacan in early classical times and it seems to have originated in the Puebla-Tlaxcala region during the Preclassic period . Analysis have traced the development of local variants Talud-tablero style sites like Tikal , where its use precedes the onset of ^the fifth century iconographic motifs shared by Teotihuacan. Talud-tablero style has spread throughout Mesoamerica, from the end of the Preclassic period, and not specifically, or only through the influence of Teotihuacan. It is not known how or from where the style spread to the Mayan region .

The city was a center of industry that was home to many potters, jewelers and artisans. Teotihuacan is known to have produced a large number of artifacts in obsidian. There is no known text not ideographic that city exists or existed. The city is however mentioned in some Maya monuments, showing that Teotihuacan nobility traveled and contracted marriage alliances with local potentates to Copn in the present state of Honduras. Of Mayan inscriptions refer to an individual nicknamed by archaeologists "Spearthrower (= propeller, atlatl, a weapon characteristic of Teotihuacan) Owl (owl =), which would be a leader who ruled Teotihuacan nearly 60 years and that his parents would have imposed as kings of Tikal and Uaxactun (in the present state of Guatemala ). These relationships were reciprocal: one found in Teotihuacan artifacts from the Maya area. Even more enlightening: isotopic analysis of three skeletons found recently in a tomb in the Pyramid of the Moon was determined they were from the Mayan highlands .

Much of what we can know of the Teotihuacan civilization comes from the murals that decorate the site and others, such as murals of Wagner , who are in private collections and hieroglyphic inscriptions of Mayan describing their encounters with the conquerors of Teotihuacan. The completion of murals can be tens of thousands, peaked between 450 and 650 AD. The art of these painters has remained unique in Mesoamerica. It was compared to that of the painters of Renaissance in Florence .

Collapse

We initially believed that around the ^seventh - ^eighth centuries , the city had been sacked and burned by invaders, probably Chichimecs. However, more recent excavations suggest that the burning of the city was limited to structures and dwellings associated primarily with the ruling class. Slums and poorer districts were not nearly unaffected. Many now argue that this is evidence that the fire was caused by a riot within the city and that the invasion theory is incorrect. Indeed, as the first archaeological work focused on the palaces and temples, places frequented by the elite , and that all these sites showed traces of fire, the archaeologists concluded that the entire city had burned. However, it now appears that the destruction of the city was limited to the symbols of power: some statues seem to have been systematically destroyed and their fragments scattered.

Indices of population decline in the early 6th century tend to confirm the hypothesis of internal unrest. The decline of Teotihuacan has been correlated with long periods of drought associated with climate change in 535-536 AD. This theory of ecological decline is based on archaeological remains show that an increase in the percentage of teenagers carrying skeletons indices malnutrition during the 6th century. This finding is not inconsistent with any of the above theories, as war and internal unrest may also have increased the effects of drought and widespread famine . Other nearby cities such as Cholula , Xochicalco and Cacaxtla competed to fill the void left by the declining power of Teotihuacan. It is possible that they are allies against Teotihuacan to reduce its influence and power. The art and architecture of these sites mimic the style of Teotihuacan, but also show an eclectic mix of motifs and iconography from other parts of Mesoamerica, particularly the Maya region.

Defenders of the invasion theory based on murals Cacaxtla , among which we found a painting representing the battle glyph on a pyramid of Teotihuacan in flames, symbol of a conquered city in Mesoamerica. That would mean that there was an attack against Teotihuacan conducted by the inhabitants of Cacaxtla. However it was not uncommon at the time that potentates falsely ascribe a victory.

Timeline Site

Principal sites associated with the city of Teotihuacan.

Several phases can be distinguished :

• Patlachique phase (100 BC. until 1 AD.) occupancy of 4 to 6 km ^2;
• Tzacualli phase (1-150 AD.) commencement of construction of the Causeway of the Dead, the Pyramid of the Sun and the Moon, the city occupies an area of 17 km ^2;
• Miccaotli phase (150-250 AD.) construction of the Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent and the Citadel; trace of an east-west at the Citadel and the city reached its maximum expansion: it occupies 22.5 km ² and would have counted about 45,000 inhabitants;
• Tlamimilolpa phase (250-450 AD.) artistic production with a high aesthetic construction of the pyramid backed by the Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent and the building of Conques feathered, relations with the Maya area and Gulf Coast of Mexico's population is estimated at 65,000 inhabitants;
• Xolalpan phase (450-650 AD.) diffusion of cultural traits of Teotihuacan through all of Mesoamerica, construction of complex habitat template, religious and administrative Tetitla, Yayahuala, Atetelco, Tepantitla, Xolalpan, Tlamimilolpa; increase surface occupancy of 20.5 km the population is estimated at 85,000;
• Metepec phase (650-750 AD.) decline: the population has more than 70 000. During the following phase Oxtipac, it drops to 2 000 inhabitants.

civilization of Teotihuacan

Ethnicity

Archaeological evidence suggests that Teotihuacan was a multi-ethnic city with distinct neighborhoods occupied by the Otomi , the Zapotec , and Mixtec , and Maya peoples and Nahua. The Totonac have always claimed it was they who had built. The Aztecs have peddled this story, but it was not corroborated by archaeological finds.

In 2001, Terrence Kaufman presented linguistic evidence suggesting that an important ethnic group of Teotihuacan was related to the linguistic family of languages Totonac and / or mixed-Zoque . He uses this fact to explain the general influence of Totonac languages and mixed-Zoques on many other Mesoamerican languages , whose speakers had had no known previous contact with one of the groups mentioned above. Other researchers argue that the largest ethnic group represented was that of the Otomi, Otomi because the language is known to have been spoken in the Teotihuacan region both before and after the classical period .

A mural depicting a character who has been identified as the Great Goddess of Teotihuacan

Religion

The religion of Teotihuacn was similar to that of other Mesoamerican cultures. Most of the gods, who were venerated were the same including the Feathered Serpent (the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl ) and the God of rain (the Aztec god Tlaloc ) . The architecture that prevailed in the cities was the pyramid. The policy was based on the state religion, religious leaders were political leaders .

The Teotihuacan practiced by human sacrifice : the bodies of men and animals sacrificed were discovered during excavations of the pyramids of Teotihuacan. Scholars believe that the people offered human sacrifices as part of a consecration, when buildings were built or enlarged. The victims were probably enemy warriors captured in battle and taken to the city for the ritual sacrifice for the prosperity of the city . Some men were decapitated, some had the heart torn out, others were killed by multiple blows struck on the head, and some were buried alive. Animals were considered sacred and represented mythical powers and military were also buried alive, trapped in cages: cougars, wolves, eagles, hawks, owls, and even venomous snakes .

Archaeological site

Model of Teotihuacan. In the center, the Alley of the Dead which is a north-south at its end the pyramid of the moon, right the Pyramid of the Sun

The memory of the ruins of Teotihuacan impressive was never lost. After the fall of the city, various occupants have lived on the site. At the time of the Aztecs , a pilgrimage route to the ruined city that was considered in Aztec mythology as the place where the sun would have been created and was identified with the myth of Tollan. Teotihuacn astonished the conquistador Spanish during the period following the conquest. From the ^sixteenth century , the Spanish chroniclers it interested him, including Bernardino de Sahagn , who described his main buildings:

"From Tamoachan, new settlers Excavation and Research

Around 1675, a Mexican scholar Carlos de Sigenza y Gngora proceeded to excavate, which prefigured the scientific archeology. In the early ^nineteenth century , the great traveler Alexander von Humboldt devotes a passage in some detail in his book The sites of the Cordilleras.

Archaeological excavations were conducted from 1864, including the French Dsir Charnay. In 1905 , the most important projects of excavation and restoration began at the instigation of Leopold Batres. In 1910 , to celebrate the centenary of the .org / wiki /% Guerre_d 27ind% C3% A9pendance_du_Mexique "alt =" War of Independence from Mexico "> Mexico's independence, the Pyramid of the Sun was restored. Excavations at the Citadel have been conducted in the 1920s, under the supervision of Manuel Gamio. Other parts of the site have been excavated in the 40 and 50. The first draft of all excavations and site restoration was conducted by INAH from 1960 to 1965 under the direction of Jorge Acosta. He had goals for the release of the floor of the dead, the consolidation of its structures, and excavation of the Palace of Quetzalpapalotl. Archaeological excavations continue today to improve the knowledge of the civilization Teotihuacan. Among the major work on the site include the Teotihuacan Mapping Project: from 1962, based on aerial photographs and topographical surveys, Rene Millon began to map the scale 1 / 2000 of the City , which remains the reference in the field.

When creating a sound and light show in 1971, workers discovered the entrance to a tunnel and a cave system under the Pyramid of the Sun . Inside the Pyramid of the Sun has never been fully excavated.

In 1980-1982, another program of excavation and restoration of important held at the Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent and the complex road of the dead. More recently, a series of excavations at the Pyramid of the Moon has greatly expanded knowledge of cultural practices.

Site Layout

Lithic stone mask discovered at Teotihuacn, ^III - VII ^century

The archaeological site of Teotihuacan covers an area of 25 km ^2, only 2% have been systematically excavated . It is oriented north-south with a deviation of 15 50 'east. One theory is that this is because the sun rose by the same angle during the same summer day each year. The settlers used the alignment to calibrate their perception of time or as a marker for planting crops or perform rituals. Another theory is that there are many ancient sites in Meso-America, which seem to be oriented towards the highest mountain in a given area. This seems to be the case in Teotihuacan, although the mountain to which the city is facing is not visible from inside the complex of Teotihuacan because of a narrow mountain ridge . Circles cross placed in the city and the nearby region show how people have managed to maintain the urban over long distances. It also allowed them to orient the pyramids to the distant mountain, which was out of sight. The form which presents itself to us, the city is divided into four quadrants by two major thoroughfares that intersect at the location of the "Citadel" and "Grand Total". From a religious point of view, this provision constitutes a cosmogram, that is to say, the symbolic representation of the world on a horizontal plane, by the scale of a city, with its center in a building that is the pivot, the vertical axis. We find such a provision in Tenochtitlan , the Aztec capital.

The city is drawn from a central axis, the "Avenue of the Dead" (translation from its Nahuatl name Miccoatli) which crosses the site from north to south on a perspective of about four kilometers and about eighty ten yards in its greatest width, with the north "Pyramid of the Moon" in the quadrangle south of the "Citadel" and halfway, the tallest structure in the city, the "Pyramid of the Sun." On both sides of the "Avenue of the Dead" stand many temples dedicated to minor gods.

Pyramid of the Sun

Pyramid of the Sun

Originally it was built is a volcanic cave long a hundred meters . It should be noted that caves play an important role in Mesoamerican religions: they are a symbol of fertility, the place of emergence of man, but also access to the underworld, that of death. The care with which this cavity was constructed reflects the importance that he attached Teotihuacanos. The Pyramid of the Sun, built above the cave, has five degrees slope. 65 meters high, it forms a square of approximately 225 meters aside, the volume totaled over one million cubic meters. The Pyramid of the Sun is the second largest in the New World after the Great Pyramid of Cholula ) and the Pyramid of the Moon. Unlike many other Mesoamerican pyramids, it has essentially been built jet. Its forepart is the major later additions. The temple, which occupied the top has disappeared.

Walk of the Dead

Mural Complex Tepantitla representing a ball player

Parallel to the western facade of the Pyramid of the Sun near the main street of Teotihuacan, the Aztecs already called Miccaotli: Walk of the Dead, as they believed that the monuments were tombs skirted . Now, researchers have established that these were ceremonial platforms (style Talud-tablero ) supplemented by temples. Its width can vary considerably, from 40 to 95 meters. It is interspersed with steps and landings. It is believed that some sections of the Avenue of the Dead could have been used golf ball game : indeed, although there is evidence - mostly paintings - that the game was well practiced at Teotihuacan, one has never regained ground similar to those of other regions of Mesoamerica .

Pyramid of the Moon

Pyramid of the Moon

North, the alley of the dead leads to the pyramid of the moon high 46 meters , behind which lurks a former volcano, Cerro Gordo. Before the building is the place of the Moon, flanked by platforms that meet a strict symmetry.

Excavations in 1998 have verified that, contrary to the Pyramid of the Sun and like many other Mesoamerican pyramids, it is the result of the superposition of several monuments archaeologists have counted at least seven phases of construction . By digging tunnels in the pyramid, archaeologists Sugiyama and Ruben Cabrera Subiro Castro discovered a tomb corresponding to the fourth phase. It contained the body of an individual probably sacrificed with a deposit of offerings: a variety of objects made of jade, obsidian, pyrite and remains of animals, including pumas and a wolf that had been buried alive. Four other people were reportedly killed during the fifth phase: the position of their hands seems to indicate that they were tied behind his back. Esther Pasztory has suggested that the Pyramid of the Sun was dedicated to the "Great Goddess" of Teotihuacan, while the Pyramid of the Moon would have been dedicated to the "God of the Storm", but readily admits that this could be the Conversely, or even neither one nor the other.

It was established that these successive pyramids were built every 52 year cycle that corresponds to the return of the religious calendar (260 days) on the same days of the calendar Land (365 days) .

The Citadel

Model of the Citadel

Inside the Citadel with the Temple of Quetzalcoatl

Sculptural decoration of the Temple of the Feathered Serpent

Some of the skeletons found in and around the Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent

Via the alley south of the Dead, at the intersection with the east-west thoroughfare, stands a huge complex that archaeologists call "the Citadel". The set occupies an area 160,000 square meters and forms a chamber of 400 meters on each side, giving it the appearance of a fortress, although it has no defense function. The enclosure defines a plaza at the bottom of which stands the Temple of the Feathered Serpent, sometimes also called the Temple of Quetzalcoatl. It is flanked by residential complexes. The Temple of the Feathered Serpent is a pyramid with seven degrees talud-tablero , built around 150 . Subsequently, he was assistant on its western facade a forehearth (adosadas in Spanish), by hiding this side of the pyramid, ensured the preservation of its scenery, the other sides having been deliberately destroyed. This decoration in high relief of talud-Tableros , is specific to Teotihuacan . The slopes are adorned with undulating feathered serpents. Vertical panels on the heads of reptiles gushing from a collar of feathers interspersed with sculptures easily definable, geometric-like. Because of their "eyes ringed", they have often been identified - wrongly - with the Aztec god Tlaloc. The archaeologist Saburo Sugiyama sees them as representations of hairstyles. Many authors speak of "Snakes hairstyles Warriors . The Temple of the Feathered Serpent is the last major structures have been erected at Teotihuacan . She has requested the implementation of considerable means: each snake's head, secured by a stud, do not weigh less than four tons. At the time of its splendor, these sculptures were painted, as can be appreciated on the reconstruction presented at the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City.

During excavations in the late ^twentieth century , were discovered in and around the pyramid, a large number of skeletons. The majority of these are young people, male, whose position of the hands, clasped behind his back, suggesting they were related and that they are victims of human sacrifice .

Threats to development

The archaeological site of Teotihuacan is threatened by development pressure. In 2004, the Governor of the State of Mexico , Arturo Montiel , gave permission to Wal-Mart build a store in the third zone of the archaeological site . According Counterpunch.org , "priceless artifacts discovered during construction of the store were transported by truck to a landfill and local workers would have burned when the carnage was revealed to the press."

More recently, Teotihuacan became the center of a controversy about Resplandor Teotihuacano , a sound and light show which, according to Statesman.com "provided large metal structures, 2500 projectors and three miles of cable ".

Chronology

See also

• Great Goddess of Teotihuacan
• BALBERT , business partner of Teotihuacan on the Pacific coast of Guatemala
• Cerro de la Estrella , a large pyramid in Teotihuacan style now subsumed by the Mexico City
• List of Meso-American pyramids
• Montana , a colony of Teotihuacan on the Pacific coast of Guatemala

Gallery

• 

  Front View of the Pyramid of the Sun

• 

  Another view of the Pyramid of the Sun

• 
• 

  Model of the site of Teotihuacan in the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City.

• 

  Marble mask, dating from the third to seventh century

• 

  Mask serpentine, ^third to ^sixth century

References

Notes

• (In) This article is partially or entirely from the article in English entitled " Teotihuacan "(see the list of authors )

1. Pre-Columbian Art and Archaeology: Mesoamerica
2. Emmanuel Noyola, "o Teotihuacan Teotihuacn?" in Letras Libres, January 2010 Bibliography

   (In) Berrin, Kathleen, Esther Pasztory, Teotihuacan: Art from the City of the Gods, Thames and Hudson, New York, 1993 ( ISBN 0-500-23653-4 ) ( OCLC 28423003 )

   (In) Braswell, Geoffrey E., The Maya and Teotihuacan: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction, University of Texas Press, Austin, 2003 ( a href = "Sp% C3% A9cial: Ouvrages_de_r% C3% A9f% C3% A9rence/0292705875" class = "mw-internal-magiclink isbn"> ISBN 0-292 - 70587-5) ( OCLC 49936017 ), "Introduction: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction", p. 1-44

   (In) Brown, Dale M., Aztecs: Reign of Blood and Splendor, Time-Life Books, Alexandria, VA, 1992 ( ISBN 0-809-49854-5 ) ( OCLC 24848419 )

   (In) Cheek, Charles D., and Kaminaljuyu Teotihuacan: a Study in Prehistoric Culture Contact, Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, 1977 ( ISBN 0271005297 ) ( OCLC 3327234 ), "The Excavations at the Acropolis and Palangana, Kaminaljuyu" p. 1-204

   (In) Coe, Michael D. , Mexico: From The Olmecs To The Aztecs, Thames & Hudson, New York, 1994 ( ISBN 0-500-27722-2 ) ( OCLC 50131575 )

   (In) Coe, Michael D. , Atlas of Ancient America, Facts on File, New York, 1986 ( ISBN 0-816-01199-0 )

   (In) Cowgill, George L. , Art, Ideology, and the City of Teotihuacan: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 8th and 9th October 1988, Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection , Washington, DC, 1992 ( ISBN 0-88402-205 -6 ) ( OCLC 25547129 ), "Teotihuacan Glyphs and Imagery in the Light of Some Early Colonial Texts', p. 231-246

   (In) Cowgill, George L., "State and Society at Teotihuacan, Mexico", in Annual Review of Anthropology , Annual Reviews Inc., Palo Alto, CA, vol. 26, ^No. 1, 1997, p. 129-161 External links in English

   • Teotihuacan Research Guide , academic resources and links, maintained by Temple University
   • Teotihuacan Photo Gallery , by James Q. Jacobs
   • Mesoamerican Photo Archives: Teotihuacan , by David Hixson
   • (In) Page dedicated to Teotihuacan on the site of the Archaeological Research Institute of the University of Arizona.
   • (En) Photo tours of Teotihuacan , by David R. Hixson (Department of Anthropology at Tulane University ).
   • (In) Rebecca Sload, " Radiocarbon Dating of Teotihuacn Mapping Project TE28 Material from Cave Under Pyramid of the Sun, Teotihuacan, Mexico , FAMSI , 2007. Accessed October 8, 2009.

   References in French

   • Teotihuacan, City of Gods (mini-site of the eponymous exhibition, published on the website of the INAH ).
   • Description of the ruins of Teotihuacan on the site of France 5.
   • Teotihuacan, a cosmic architecture , review article by Carmen Clio Bernand site.

   Pre-Columbian civilizations
   North America	Adena Anasazi Fort Ancient Fremont Hohokam Hopewell Civilization Mississippi Mogollon Mound Builders Patayan Poverty Point
   Mesoamerica	Aztec Capacha Maya Chichimecs Cholula Chupcuaro Cuicuilco Culture graves wells Culture Teuchitlan El Openo Epi-Olmec Huaxtecs Izapa Mixtec Olmec Pipil Tarascans Teotihuacn Tlatilco Toltec Totonac Zapotec
   South America	Calima Caaris Caral Chachapoyas Chavin Chibcha Chimu Huari Inca Ugly Nazca Paracas Sicn Tairona Tiahuanaco Valdivia Vicus Viru
   Pre-Columbian civilizations	Peoples and Cultures Arts Timelines Writing Religion Sciences Society Sites Archaeologists Bibliography
   Native Americans American Columbian Portal

   World Heritage in Mexico
   Cultural	Historic Centre of Mexico City and Xochimilco (1987) Historic Centre of Puebla (1987) Historic Centre of Oaxaca and Archaeological Site of Monte Alban (1987) Pre-Hispanic City of Teotihuacan (1987) Pre-Hispanic City and National Park of Palenque (1987) Historic Town of Guanajuato and Adjacent Mines (1988) Pre-Hispanic City of Chichen - Itza (1988) Historic Centre of Morelia (1991) El Tajin, Pre-Hispanic City (1992) Historic Centre of Zacatecas (1993) Rock paintings Sierra de San Francisco (1993) First sixteenth century monasteries on the slopes of Popocatepetl (1994) pre-Columbian city of Uxmal (1996) Historic Monuments Zone of Quertaro (1996) Hospice Cabaas, Guadalajara (1997) Archaeological Zone Paquim, Casas Grandes (1998) Historic Monuments Zone of Tlacotalpan (1998) Historic Fortified Town of Campeche (1999) Archaeological Monuments Zone of Xochicalco (1999) Ancient Maya City of Calakmul, Campeche (2002) Franciscan Missions in the Sierra Gorda of Quertaro (2003) House and Studio of Luis Barragn (2004) Agave Landscape and Ancient Industrial Facilities of Tequila (2006) Campus Central campus of the (UNAM) (2007) Protective town of San Miguel and the Sanctuary of Jess Nazareno de Atotonilco (2008) Camino Real de Tierra Adentro (2010) prehistoric caves Yagul and Mitla in the center of the valley of Oaxaca (2010)
   Natural	Sian Ka'an (1987) Whale Sanctuary of El Vizcaino (1993) Islands and Protected Areas of the Gulf of California (2005) Biosphere Reserve of the Monarch Butterfly (2008)
   List of World Heritage in Africa America Asia and Oceania in Europe

   • Archaeology portal
   • Portal Pre-Columbian America
   • Global Heritage Portal
   • Portal Aztecs

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