Socrates
| Socrates () | |
| Western philosopher | |
| Antiquity | |
 | |
| Birth | 470 BC |
|---|---|
| Deaths | 399 BC. BC ( Athens ) |
| Main interests | Ethics , politics , love influenced by Anaxagoras of Clazomenae , Prodicus |
| Notable ideas | Maieutics , irony |
| Influenced | Plato , Xenophon , Antisthenes the Socratic philosophers and most Western |
| Adjectives derived | Socratic |
change  | |
Socrates (in Greek / is a philosopher of ancient Greece ( V centuryBC. ), considered one of the inventors of the moral and political philosophy. Yet he left no written work, his philosophy has been passed down through indirect evidence (particularly the writings of his disciples Plato and Xenophon ).
Summary |
Biography
Biographical Elements
Socrates was born in 470 BC. AD (third year of the 77thOlympiad ), at the end of the Median wars , probably in May (6 month tharglion ), near Athens , in the deme of alopecia, edema which was Part of the tribe of Antiochide. His father, Sophroniscus was sculptor or stonemason and his mother, Phnarte, midwife. Socrates had a half brother, Patroclus, son of the first husband of his mother. Little is known of his youth. He probably received a classical education, that the Athenian law forcing a father to give his son: gymnastics , music (singing, dancing ) and grammar, which involves the study of ' Homer , of Hesiod and other poets. Diogenes Laertius quotes the beginning of a paean and a fable attributed to Socrates:
Socrates seems not to have been content of this education. According to Maximus of Tyre , Socrates turned to all sorts of masters from his youth. Perhaps remarkable thing in those days, among his teachers, Socrates up several women. First, about 440 BC. AD, Diotima , a priestess of Mantinea , taught him the science of love , but this woman may be a character invented by Plato. Then Socrates attended, from 441 BC. BC to 429 BC. BC, Aspasia , the consort of Pericles , famous both for its beauty and its spirit. Socrates would have learned throughout his life: he claims to be a disciple of Prodicus of Ceos , and he attended the sophists ( Protagoras , Hippias of Elis ). He had learned the poem with venos Paros , the agriculture with to Ischomachus and geometry with Theodore of Cyrene , who was a master of Plato as well. He was the disciple to Samos physicist Archelaus of Miletus. He said not to understand Heraclitus. This information should be viewed with caution, because the evidence on these points, as on others, not always consistent. It has highlighted the ironic tone of Socrates when he claims to be a disciple of someone . According to several testimonies, it is possible that Socrates has exercised the first trade of a sculptor, he is credited, rightly or wrongly to a statue of the Graces that stood in front of the Acropolis . According to other testimony, it would have been a banker. According to Demetrius of Byzantium is Crito who allowed him to live in a leisure to devote himself to philosophy. It seems to have disposed of a fortune and quite comfortable. However, according to Plato , Socrates would have lived in great poverty, and this is confirmed by Xenophon . This is also confirmed by the nicknames affublent comedians (see Eupolis or Aristophanes ): "the beggar", "the beggar", "the bare-feet", etc.. He was also presented as a tramp, dirty, beat making by individuals frustrated with his mania for discussion. It seems he was interested primarily in the philosophy of nature and the physical nature of speculation. This interest was caused by the rupture that maintaining the pre-Socratic philosophers with the supernatural and the world of the gods that existed before. But then he seems to have been disappointed by purely causal explanations of Anaxagoras , and he walked quickly away from these physicists, lamenting their materialist explanation and side limited their meditations based solely on the nature ( ). The Apology of Socrates says he was never interested in such research, but in his desire for justification, it is possible that Plato had omitted certain aspects of the youth of Socrates, who were perhaps unknown. It also seems to have particularly interested in the art of distinguishing the meaning of words, art taught by Prodicus , although it sometimes refers to it ironically.
Around 435 BC. BC, he began teaching in the street, in gyms, stadiums, shops, depending on meetings. Living in poverty , had no job, he roamed the streets of Athens more than simply dressed and without shoes, talking with everyone, trying to make it wiser by the recognition of their ignorance: "What I do not know, I do not know "(" ). He claims to have been given the task of educating his contemporaries: that Apollo "who had assigned the task of living in philosophy, was scrutinizing himself and others" .
In 432 BC. AD, he saves the life of Alcibiades , at the Battle of Potidaea ; in 430 BC. AD, it is hoplite (foot soldier) to Samos alongside Pericles.
He had many disciples, including:
- Apollodorus ,
- Isocrates for a short period;
- Aristippus of Cyrene ,
- Antisthenes
- Cebes ,
- Simla
- Crito
- Phaedo of Elis ,
- Metrodorus </ ref> familiar with Anaxagoras , he was also a disciple </ ref>
- Xenophon ,
- Euclid of Megara ,
- Alcibiades from 431 BC. AD
- Charmides ,
- Critias ,
- Theaetetus of Athens
- Plato as 407 BC. AD. He taught, or rather questioned, free - unlike the Sophists , who taught rhetoric at sharply retribution. This mission made him in his eyes the only citizen true, that is to say that the only serious concerns about political life. He opposed it in the demagogic nature of the democracy of Athens that he wanted to shake by his action. His habit of questioning did not cease from morning to evening because it was "committed to the Athenians by the will of the gods to promote a horsefly stimulate a horse" .
Aristophanes ridiculed him in his play The Clouds (423 BC.). He intervened in the battle of Amphipolis alongside Cleon in 422 BC. AD, and the year 420 BC. AD is very important since the Pythia of Delphi had met his childhood friend Chaerephon : "There is no man wiser than Socrates" . This divine mission is also expressed by the demon of Socrates , a divinatory sign, a kind of inner voice tells him that the acts must refrain . Around 416 BC. AD, so old, he married Xanthippe , who is considered a particularly cantankerous woman and he had a son, Lamprocles. He may be a second marriage with Myrtho, that gave two other son .
During the Peloponnesian War , in 424 BC. BC, he saved Xenophon , in the battle of Delium , who sees the Thebans defeat the Athenians. It was around 407 years BC. BC Plato became his disciple. In 406 BC. BC, Socrates was chairman of the Five Hundred. One of his disciples, Euclid of Megara in 405 BC. AD, founded the first school of the Little Socratic: the Megarian. Under the tyranny of the Thirty , which lasted eight months, he was banned from teaching. It ordered him to arrest a citizen, Leon, whom he considered innocent . He refused to submit to this evil act. Luckily he escaped the purges of Thirty.
The last ten years of Socrates' life are largely unknown. In 400 BC. AD, another disciple, causing Antisthenes, founded the second school of the Little Socratic: the cynicism. The following year, founded the third school Aristippus: Cyrenaic.
The Trial of Socrates
Several members of the Athenian ruling class claimed to see in him a spirit perverting the moral values traditional and therefore a danger to the social order. In April 399 BC. BC , Socrates found himself accused by Meletus , and two of his friends ( Lycon and Anytus ), the two following crimes, cut to three counts
- "Do not recognize the gods recognized by the city ": According to his accusers, Socrates denies the gods. This charge must be related with the general questioning induced by sophistry;
- introducing 'new divinities "Socrates believed in a personal demon, a voice or a sign that warned. But it is far from clear that he attributed a divine nature;
- "Corrupting youth": it teaches the two facts mentioned above (especially as some of his followers were bad citizens, as Alcibiades, Critias, Charmides ) .
This trial can not be understood in relation to the historical context. In 404 BC. AD, at the end of the Peloponnesian Wars, Athens had suffered a disastrous defeat against the Spartans, who imposed the rules on Trent. Besides the betrayals of the disciples mentioned above, many attributed the defeat and its consequences to an alleged loss of traditional values. In this perspective, one quickly finds scapegoats: the sophists. Were burned, for example, some of the works of Protagoras. Socrates was considered to be one of them, particularly affecting consciousness. It was in this atmosphere of witch hunt, told by Mansour Rahbani in his play The Last Days of Socrates , that his trial ensued.
It took place in two stages. Initially, 501 jurors were assembled for his trial. Socrates refused to read a speech of defense that was written by Lysias to his attention. He reportedly told Lysias about this: "It's like a nice pair of shoes that do not suit me." Socrates prefers to tell his life then the jury (Plato, Apology, 20d-22b). This attitude earned him convicted with 281 votes against him. In a second step, it comes to choosing the penalty for convicted Socrates: either death (his accusers want that), or pay a fine. To encourage the parties to a more moderate, the judges were, not determine their own award, but choosing among the proposals of both sides of the trial (Meletus accuser, the accused Socrates) that they seemed the most reasonable. Socrates was thus possible to propose a sentence that could be accepted by the judges. Socrates said he then agreed to pay a fine of mine (100 drachmas) and 30 mines when Plato, Crito and Apollodorus Critobulus beckoned him immediately. When he fixed his fine at a mine in the first instance, there was no question of mockery, far away ... Socrates himself said from the beginning of his apology: he is poor, he even need to be fed. Note that before proposing a fine as punishment, he offered what seemed the fairest in his eyes as a penalty, he said with what he had done for the city, he deserved to be sheltered and fed the Military Academy for the rest of his life (cf. Plato, Apology , 36d-37b). This attitude eventually exasperated the judges who saw it as perhaps the arrogance (or Socrates did not stop to remember throughout his trial that it was only truth), and Socrates was condemned to death with 60 more votes. Socrates saw himself then forced to drink a deadly poison, the poison hemlock. Having had, during his imprisonment, the opportunity to escape, he refused to do so on the grounds that compliance with the laws of the city was more important than himself. When Socrates heard Xanthippe complain, citing that this was unfair, he replied: "Would you have preferred it to be exactly? Anytus Meletus and can kill me, they can not hurt me. "
Death of Socrates
Socrates died in May or June 399 BC. AD , condemned to drink hemlock, as reported by Xenophon in the Memorabilia, "I have often wondered by what arguments the accusers of Socrates persuaded the Athenians that he deserved death as a criminal state." He spent the days before his death to talk to his friends, as evidenced by the Crito of Plato. His last day is told in the Phaedo : it is a dialogue on the immortality of the soul , whose moral is that the wise must hope for a living God after death. He stated before his death " . Asclepius or Aesculapius the god of medicine, it is possible that this last word means (in the context of Platonic philosophy) "we must thank God for giving man the ability to take care of themselves" (on time). Nietzsche gave another interpretation of these words: "Crito, life is a disease" (The gay science); Nietzsche sees Socrates as a philosopher who denies that Dionysian life. The Athenians, then, were upset the conviction of Socrates. Those who had participated in his conviction were banished from the city and a statue was erected to perpetuate his memory. The narratives of Plato and Xenophon on the subject have proved more durable than the latter.
The death of Socrates is a cornerstone of modern philosophy, attitudes and behaviors toward death itself, the Homeric heroes heroes gave way to thinking, die for what one believes is, at the time, as prestigious to die by firing squad. It is through his death that Socrates influenced the world. In his Letter 7 , Plato finds unjust death of Socrates and declares that "evil will not cease to humans before the genuine philosophers come to power, or the heads of cities, by divine grace, it begin to philosophize truly " .
Great Socratic base their school later: it will be the Academy of Plato and the Lyceum of Aristotle (who knew no Socrates).
His character
Socrates was physically ugly: bald, he looked like a satyr or Silenus (see The Banquet ). Such a face was morally outrageous, because the ugliness was seen by spotters of the time as the index of intemperance and vice;
" . "
This observation provides information about the prejudices that prevailed in Greece on physical appearance, it also gives valuable information on the character of Socrates with his response reported by Cicero :
"Zopyrus, who gave a clever physiognomist, having looked at a large company, made the enumeration of the defects he discovered in himself and everyone laughed because we saw nothing of all this in Socrates. He saved the honor Zopyrus stating that he was really focused on all these vices, but that he was healed with the help of reason . "
His violent nature is confirmed by one of the most direct evidence known to the Spintharos: his son wrote the memories of it on Socrates which he was the contemporary
According to Emile Brehier (History of philosophy), the violent nature he has mastered probably explains the fascination he exercised over men so ardent that Alcibiades and Plato.
The Philosophy of Socrates
Interpretations of the thought of Socrates are quite diverse. It is seen through the eyes of his family, his biographers, who have proposed a reading, and various trends that have claimed him after his death. The oldest of all the evidence is The Clouds of Aristophanes , which dates from 423, while Socrates was forty-seven. He was over sixty when he met Plato.
How Socrates himself did he see him with the Delphic inscription " Know thyself "was the motto, that's a tough question, often buried under the multitude of interpretations. Nevertheless, it is possible by comparing these performances to make some relatively strong assumptions (for example, some items are known by the testimony of a reliable relatively safe) and present the various aspects of the philosophy of this man, as they have been included, even if they seem contradictory.
Sources
Most things we know about Socrates comes from recurring information in secondary sources: the dialogues of Plato, a student of Socrates, Xenophon's works, one of his contemporaries and the writings of Aristophanes and Aristotle. Nothing that Socrates himself wrote has survived. Aristophanes was a famous satirist, his remarks on Socrates therefore may be biased, exaggerated or even totally biased, another difficulty is that the tradition of Greek thought was that thinkers attribute their own ideas, theories or even their own mental traits to their masters, a tradition that Plato seems to have followed. Gabriele Giannantoni, in 'Socrates and Socraticorum reliquiae', his monumental work published in 1991, seeks to bring together any semblance of evidence regarding Socrates, including material attributed to Aeschines Socraticus, Antisthenes, and a number of others are believed to have known. The Socratic method: His most important contribution to Western thought is perhaps the dialectical method (that is answer a question with a question) investigation, known as the Socratic method or method of the elenchos, it widely applied in the examination of central concepts such as moral good and justice, concepts which he uses constantly without actually defining them. This was described by Plato in the Socratic dialogues. Therefore Socrates is constantly regarded as the father of political philosophy, ethics or moral philosophy, and as a source of all the major themes of Western philosophy in general. Under this method, a series of questions designed to help a person or group to determine their beliefs presupposed and the extent of their knowledge. The Socratic method is a method by elimination of negative assumptions: the best assumptions and are based on clearly identifying and eliminating those which lead to contradictions. She tried to force everyone to examine his own beliefs and their validity. Thus Socrates once said: "I know you will not believe me, but the highest form of human excellence is to question yourself and ask others .
The first evidence
The oldest evidence consists of part of Aristophanes , The Clouds, a play performed in 423 BC. BC when Socrates was able to attend. Plato makes mention in his Apology of Socrates.
Besides the Socratic dialogues, there are three types of representations of Socrates in Plato:
- Defence of Socrates ( Apology , Crito , Euthyphro );
- Idealization of Socrates ( Phaedo , The Symposium , Theaetetus , Parmenides );
- Socrates, a spokesman for the Doctrine of the Academy ( Gorgias , The Republic ).
We owe to Xenophon , a disciple of Socrates and Plato's contemporary, historical evidence of the life of Socrates, who is sometimes considered rather poor (eg through his translator Chambry) as a paper on his mind. Xenophon has left a short Apology of Socrates and especially Memorabilia. There is debate over whether Xenophon, not being a philosopher, does not present a more objective evidence of Socrates that Plato does. Other traditions Some traditions hostile to Socrates provide some elements: Nothing is known with certainty young ideas of Socrates, nor even of Socrates maturity. The evidence on these points do not agree, but we can make some assumptions. In the Phaedo and in the Clouds, Socrates is thought to have first been interested in the speculations of physics. But this interest is categorically denied in the Apology of Socrates , and the historic nature of this latest work seems to make it more reliable than the works of a comic ( Aristophanes ) or a disciple who puts in the Phaedo , in the mouth of his master his own theory of Ideas. . It seems possible to infer from all these stories that, if Socrates probably knew physical theories, but it was mainly concerned with very different questions throughout his life, saying vain and contradictory speculations of physiologists on unity and multiplicity, Rest and fate of being, etc.. This rejection of physics do not seem to be particularly specific to Socrates: by Emile Boutroux , the Greeks were a people political and religious artist, physics was not essentially part of their culture. According to Xenophon (Memorabilia), Socrates divided into two things: human affairs (piety, beauty, justice, political, etc..) And divine (the formation of the world, for example). We know the first by argument, but knowledge of the latter are reserved for the gods. Here we see the religious character of Socratic thought: physicists overthrow the divine order of knowledge and research are ungodly. Socrates is also the one that replaces the physical causes of Presocratic final causes to explain the phenomena of natural and moral. He is the author of a metaphysical spiritualist (cf. Phaedo ). Socrates praise indeed the idea of Anaxagoras that there is a cause and instructing rejects any notion of a mechanical cause. However, Socrates does not reject the idea of science. When he objected to physiologists, is to ask if they think about things human enough to feel the right to speculate on what is on the order of the divine. It is therefore certain that Socrates holds the idea of science, but he changes the subject by applying it to men he retains the form of physical research, but he rejects the merits. This is a fairly similar in terms of its attitude towards the Sophists : Socrates does not reject any sophistry. Indeed, for Socrates, sophistry is a royal art . Aristophanes ironically goes to the present as part of the Sophists . But Socrates makes a distinction between ends and means. The end of sophistry is to make men able to speak well and act well, capable of managing public affairs and domestic affairs. Socrates endorses this goal and he fully agrees with the Sophists to say that the man should deal only with matters that concern him, I respect the man as a man and his culture. The idea that the Sophists are the instruction is so cultivate universal human faculty. However, unlike the Sophists, Socrates does not value the man for the reason that there are no gods: they are contrary to the limits of man in relation to the divine which require that we take care to cultivate our faculties within the bounds of what is given us. Taken from the inscription on the pediment of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi , which is expected to one of the seven sages Presocratics : philosopher Chilo of Sparta , it is doubtful that the motto invites observed, to know oneself as an individual, it is rather to be seen as a thinking being, rising above individual feelings and opinions that are always an illusion Data and this knowledge-consciousness or conscientiel
The ignorance or the blindness of self-made man dependent and slave of his opinions or data. However, knowledge or observation of our nature, what we are, makes us free and able to satisfy us to ourselves. It is proper that the idea itself is a moral science which observation makes us happy. But this science Socratic several problems relating to the method. Socrates is credited with the invention of the interpretation or definition, determining the concept would be what constitutes science, and it would apply this abstract idea of science in the field of experience. All his thought can be summarized according to the historian of philosophy Edward Zeller , the overhaul of philosophy on the general - or concept - as the object of science. His main work was therefore a theoretical invention, if one relies in support of this interpretation, the testimony of Aristotle : Socrates therefore sought the ti esti ( ;, "What is it?"), That is to say the essence of things, but without placing it outside the world as Plato will , to the astonishment, it is said, of his master by Diogenes Laertius , after hearing a reading of the Lysis , Socrates exclaimed: "As this young man makes me say things that are not mine! " But this interpretation (Zeller, Schleiermacher and Aristotle was clearly of this opinion) because of the Socratic method is something prior to the ethics and this is probably true of Plato and Aristotle himself. But in the case of Socrates, the interpretation requires that one partner of the question for him, not the use that was made later in his thought. But for Socrates, the question is how science can be a science that is designed to virtue and happiness. Scientific and moral aspects are not separable nor ontologically or chronologically. The criterion of knowledge or observation by the knowledge of the observation is for Socrates the agreement with oneself and with others it is in that report mind to itself lies the certainty of knowledge-consciousness. Science is to the general. Accordingly, the moral analysis focuses on what is common to actions, not the action itself. For example: by what right action is it called exactly? We have a notion of justice, since we use to describe some specific actions. And these are concepts that allow this type of agreement of minds through dialogue beyond the quarrels about words. Knowledge is certainty, not data. Knowledge is certain. There is no knowledge without knowledge, without any certainty. For a certainty, we must be able to observe, to know. Unless the individual has certainty about anything, unless it can be said about what he considers healthy. In this test of knowledge, we can cite the story of three sieves One day someone came to see Socrates and told him , : - Listens to Socrates, I must tell you how your friend was driving. - Stop "interrupted the wise man. Did you have what you say to me through the three screens? - Three screen, "said another, filled with astonishment. - Yes my good friend: three screens. Consider if what you say to me can go through three screens. The first is the truth. Have you checked if all you want to tell me is true? - No, I heard tell, and ... - Well well. But surely, you've passed through the second screen. Is that of goodness. Is that what you want to tell me if this is not entirely true, is at least something good? Hesitating, he replied: - No, this is not something good, instead ... - Hum, "said the philosopher, trying to use the third screen and see if it is useful to tell me what you want to tell me ... - Useful? Not exactly ... - Well, "said Socrates, smiling," if what you have to tell me is neither true nor good nor useful, I'd rather not know, and as for you, I advise you to forget ... The dialogue (the dialectic ) or communication that is required by the object of observation is the man. This is a hand to observe what subjects people are in agreement and certain, and secondly to educate others about what we have the certainty or knowledge / observation. Each speaker also has in itself the criterion that allows a dialogue to take place efficiently, since each brings with it the human nature that we seek to observe. Yet one of the first results of the Socratic research is that men often ignore or fail to observe what they are or what they do: Charmides is a reserved teenager, but he does not know what the reserve Laches and Nicias are courageous, but they ignore the courage. Hence, a result at least has been achieved: the interlocutors of Socrates learn to be observed (knowing) themselves as blind or ignorant. They break up their data on illusory themselves and are forced to watch them. This is why the dialogue has a very violent psychological character. Meno discusses the effect of the torpedo : as contact with the fish, contact with Socrates and paralyzes disconcerting. That is why some, like Alcibiades, Socrates flee for fear of this change in direction of gaze inward (LC internalization of St. Martin): Because of these characteristics, the dialectic has some conditions: The dialectic is not simply a means of science, which would apply to his subject from the outside, but it is essentially part of wisdom. For Socrates, so always examine things in common, no consciousness of man without it. The term " Socratic method "comes from the Greek Maieutik: Art to give birth. Socrates, son of Phnarte midwife, said that since his mother was giving birth women give birth made him the spirits of the thoughts they contain already, without knowing or being aware . The idea of the Socratic method is already present in the idea of the dialectic discussed in the previous section. Indeed, the stupor that Socrates is essentially caused by the fact that its partners are set to face their own contradictions and these contradictions that arise from this look suddenly turned on itself create problems of the soul it needs to deliver. This is why Socrates is compared by Meno to a fish torpedo. In the dialogues he begins, Socrates is usually the one who raises questions, his questions are designed to bring ideas to the observation of his interlocutors, then look for consistency: is it an illusion or something viable or useful? Thus, in these dialogues, Socrates is presented as one who knows, the observer and not as an ignorant or blind, as a sterile mind with regard to wisdom, which has only one art, that of maieutics. Socrates treats with irony the foundations of philosophy. His philosophy goes against the opinion, in Greek doxa. Wonder of a discourse involves a release, a critical reflection. Whoever engages in astonishment contradicts the view and puts it at a distance. In fact, the philosophy is to think against the common opinion and that is why it is a paradox (para - doxa). Philosophy is the school of the doubt. Socrates is the symbol of free thought and critical because according to him the task of the philosopher is to question and to doubt. It seeks to challenge conventional wisdom. Socrates practiced irony. It is a method of questioning by feigning ignorance. He uses it to place its partners face their contradictions. We must succeed in making them understand the phrase "I only know one thing: I know nothing." Socrates is aware of his ignorance and mocks the naivety of people who think they know so they do not know. Clearly, irony is used to raise awareness that we are ignorant. He manages to show those who think they know, they know nothing and those who think themselves ignorant they have resources in them to attain knowledge. In his dialogues, Plato shows that Socrates heard a voice in itself, the voice of conscience (see the episode's refusal to escape in the Crito ) that appears linked to attacks of paralysis. The good genius, or , Socrates appears as the voice that told him he should not do, it is not protreptic but aprotreptique. The demon of Socrates has the same function vis--vis Socrates that Socrates himself vis--vis his interlocutors. For Hegel , the existence of means that it is by his own insight that the man decides. However, if the subject decides for himself well in his inwardness, engineering is still the non-conscious, an exterior that is decided, it is not Socrates himself: he is his oracle. As Socrates is the turn of the mind in its interiority, the occupies precisely the milieu of exteriority between Oracle and the pure inwardness of the mind "as it is, from Socrates for the minds of individuals to replace the oracles. It is, moreover, a real state, since it corresponds to fits of catalepsy , where Socrates knows a split consciousness. exceeds the self-consciousness while the cause, it remains as atopic if he is fit for Socrates, the latter can not be appropriated. But Socratic thought also has a religious character, since by the oracle of Delphi , Socrates takes the mission to flush out the false prophets. Socrates is deeply religious, if somewhat mystical , one can speak of faith in God, admiration of his works and providence. His work is divinely inspired, but it also has a dimension of politics that aims to reform the city (cf. Apology of Socrates ). The personality of Socrates was the subject of much speculation. Besides the philosophers and moralists, many psychologists have claimed to explain the character of Socrates. The psychology and philosophy of the nineteenth century were particularly looked into this case sometimes considered pathological. During his lifetime, a thought physiognomist see on his face the marks of an intemperate nature (see above). Here, as an indication that some elements, though not incontrovertible, can see different points of the amazing life of this philosopher. We know that Socrates went on some occasions several hours motionless, absorbed in meditation. Plato was a description in The Banquet. We were able to assimilate these states of ecstasy intellectual (it was the opinion of the Ancients), but the extended length of these ecstasies (twenty-four hours according to Plato) is excessive in nature which suggests that Socrates actually going through crises catalepsy . Some descriptions reveal the symptoms of sleepwalking: - Aulus Gellius , Attic Nights The hallucinations of hearing Socrates, which he attributed to a god (Apollo) and the interrupt his words or his actions, similar to the physicians of the nineteenth century , with symptoms of alienation mental Tragic Hero? The design of the immortality of the soul of Plato goes against the spirit of tragedy. It seems to support the thesis of Socrates in excess of the tragedy. However, Plato uses the tragedy in another sense: he sees the power of fascination and feels the sacred dimension. The hero breaks the law but is terrified of its inviolability. Plato will therefore recover this power of fascination by showing that philosophy carries the tragedy: the truth of the tragedy is the tragedy of the truth, so that Socrates is presented as a tragic hero par excellence. "Such a tragic hero, I will to my fate "( Phaedo .) For Hegel , Socrates is a tragic hero. It is he who is himself his own justification he opposes to that of the city. The people of Athens and Socrates are both innocent and guilty is expiate his fault, the resulting conflict is a right which faces another as it is for Socrates to replace the oracle individual self-consciousness. This awareness is a new god unrecognized. This is where the charge against the capital offense of Socrates is based entirely: since it is the tragic hero who has recognized and expressed a higher principle of mind. For Nietzsche , the real responsible for the death of Socrates is the tragedy as it is the first nihilist , ruining the spirit of Greek tragedy: it denies the dimension Dionysian life. (Cf. Theory of Nietzsche.) In the philosophy Hegel , all elementary representations is not immediately aware, however, the mind tends to realize itself. For this he must leave himself to objectify and thus capture its content (eg, production of items = externalizing human capacities). This dialectical movement is that of the Aufhebung, that is to say, the excess of the contradiction in itself / for itself while holding it. Remember also that in Hegel, the mind is seen spirituality as a people, it manifests itself through art, religion and the philosophy. In the East, the mind is conceived as substantial but inaccessible (the meaning of the pyramids impenetrable, the Sphinx with closed eyes ...), while in the West, the spirit is supreme but conceived as subjective conscious of 'itself: "Individuals are the place where the spirit speaks for itself." That is why the statues of gods and men are the temples are open to the world. This passage from one to another is augured into the myth Oedipus and philosophy by Socrates. This explained by Hegel, is that when the Sphinx posed to Oedipus the big question: "Who walks on all fours in the morning, two legs at noon and three legs at night? "She asks him in truth" Who's mind? "(For as the sun passes from morning to noon and evening, the spirit moves from East to West), so lorsqu'dipe meets" the man ", it means that "spirit in man" and that is why the Sphinx dies, because it represents the Spirit of the East (where the mind is unattainable for the mysterious man) and Oedipus represents Spirit of the West (where the spirit is in man). Kierkegaard's Socrates As he wants to restore the possibility in mind (in the Hegelian sense) Christian as such, Kierkegaard presents himself as the Socrates of Christianity. It is for him to practice Socratic irony against Christianity (and not to integrate the theory of reminiscence to the Christian faith). He leaves in effect the principle that what Socrates is the event (as opposed to what constitutes the event Christ ) is precisely the irony. For Hegel , it happens that irony is the mark of subjectivity, as irony, although it is negative in itself, is primarily a transition to positivity of subjectivity is deciding for itself. However, although Kierkegaard conceives this negativity, it does not incorporate the idea of transition, he sees the irony as radical negativity (negativity because as the truth), it is itself paradoxical, that is to say anti-dogmatic This renders the individual the opportunity to expose yourself. It happen to experience the non-knowledge as a requirement of a truth that no doctrine can not be filled. Socrates is a vacuum which has been built on the personalities and doctrines, therefore it is an event, however, Socrates devoted himself so much to the irony that he died. " Nietzsche's Socrates - Friedrich Nietzsche , Twilight of the Idols Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche sees Socrates as a case of hyperrationnalit caused by the disorder of instincts. According to Nietzsche, Socrates, to fight against its violent internal disorders, needed to rely on reason not to sink completely. This repression of instincts made him a fanatic of morality in which "everything (...) is exaggerated, comic, caricature, The Socrates of Lacan Briefly, in Lacan , the understanding of desire through the unattainable object that is the thing and that leads to perpetual dissatisfaction of desire. The analysis seeks what is the object of his desire, and thus its ontological completeness. The language is a closed circle, the subject fails to perceive the meaning of the symbols it contains. Or the analysand that the analyst thinks will be able to reveal the symbolic meaning of his desires he expressed through language, it is this Great Other, who holds the keys to the language. Lacan believed that the analyst is then able to make him discover that the Big Other does not exist and there is no meaning, its role is to take "the lack of being." Socrates is the analyst who through his dialogues seek the definition of the meaning of things. Some believe if it can thereby gain access to the highest good (as well as the analysand believes that the analyst has the keys to the language) even though the Socratic dialogues are purely aporetic. Socrates confronts his interlocutors in their own contradictions, it forces them to reflect on their performances so that they are consistent. Its position as qu'antidogmatique is transitive to no knowledge: it is instead to understand that no knowledge is possible. That is the purpose of the analyst, the analysand to understand that the ultimate object of desire is neither knowable nor accessible. And it is here that Lacan says We have not sufficiently considered that Socrates was the son of a stonemason and has devoted himself to sculpture. Yet this universe the way it illuminates singularly pense.La search form (including humans) by the two methods seem contradictory but that converge to the "skin" of the finished work: namely the modeling and size reflect word for word (particularly the second, slow and painful) to the Socratic method of seeking the truth. In addition, everyone can see, without seeing, that the muscles and organs underlying (hidden, but intuitive in all men) contribute so powerfully to the "truth" of the work, some sculptors have a method to model par couches successives de l'intrieur vers l'extrieur. Ainsi procdent galement les experts qui reconstituent un visage partir d'un crne rduit l'ossature. La mthode inverse,la taille, prsuppose la recherche lente par limination des scories, de la vrit sous- jacente et cache du corps limit enferm au sein d'un amas de possibles limits, cern par une infinit d'erreurs possibles. Et il faut insister sur le fait que dans la taille, toute erreur (en trop) par l'enlvement non rflchi d'un clat irrparable, dtruit par un seul geste irrflchi ou hasardeux la vrit de toute l'oeuvre. Enfin le regard limit l'enveloppe extrieure singulire prsuppose la connaissance ordonne du contenu cach mais ncessaire que l'on sent tre commun tous les modles. Claude Palay Socrate sculpteur (2010) (par ordre historique) Socrate n'a rien crit. Il ne reste que des tmoignages. (par ordre chronologique) Socrates and physics
Socrates and the sophists
Definition
The test
The three screens (attributed to Socrates)
Dialogue
The Socratic
Irony
The daimon ()
Some theories of personality
Sleepwalker?
Insane?
Hegel's Socrates
Bibliography
Sources
Studies
Notes
Republic
See also
Related articles
External Links
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