Home  ›  Slavery

Slavery

Slavery is the social status of slaves, workers and non-free are generally unpaid legally the property of another person and therefore tradable (purchase, sale, rental, ...), in the same way that an object or a pet. In a broad sense, slavery is the socio-economic system based on the maintenance and operation of people in this condition.

Defined as a "tool animated" by Aristotle ( Nicomachean Ethics , VI, chap. VIII-XIII), the slave is different from the slave , the prisoner or convict (conditions surrounding the farm) and the beast of burden by a separate legal status determined by the rules (customs, laws , ...) in force in the country and the time considered. These rules specify inter alia the conditions by which one becomes a slave or it ceases to be, what limitations are necessary to master, what degree of freedom and legal protection keeps the slave, what humanity (what soul on the religious level) he recognizes, etc.. The emancipation of a slave (by his master or by the authority of the prince) made him a freedman, who has a status similar to that of the ordinary individual.

The slave trade transatlantic and East are the most emblematic of slavery, by their duration (several centuries), magnitude (tens of millions of slaves), and their historical impact (including the United States and the African ).

Promptly condemned since antiquity (morally and sometimes legally), and more recently banned by the human rights , slavery took a long time to be abolished. Slavery is officially banned today (via for example the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ). However, besides the fact that it does not prohibit a practice to see it disappear completely, there may still be locally tolerances government.

Summary

/ / Definitions

Etymologies

The modern term "slave" comes from the Latin medieval Latin word sclavus deformation slavus (Slavic) , where most slaves were Slavs of the Balkans, "an area formerly called" Slavonia "and Slavonia, which recently became independent, under the name " Croatia ". The same root is found in the Arabic word saqaliba, which is not surprising since the Turks acquired their future Janissaries by purchasing or capturing of Christian children in the same region.

Rome practicing slavery, like all ancient peoples, Latin obviously had a word for slave, servus, which led to the term "slave" and "servility," relating to the slave and his condition. That word also gave rise to the term "serf" of medieval and modern "service", "servant" or "ciao", etc..

French Dictionary

According to the French Academy , the slave is a person who is not provided free, which belongs to a master exercising absolute power over her. " . Slavery is therefore primarily the condition of slavery, and the reduction of man to a slave state.

The slave may depend on any authority: an individual, group, organization or state. The French Academy add to this, by extension, any "social institution based on the existence of a slave class"

By analogy, slavery is a "state, .

The definition does not exclude formally the notion of voluntary servitude.

Other senses:

  • Figuratively, slavery is the condition of "a person who, from interest or taste, gets in the outhouse of another and blindly follows his wishes. "
  • By extension, "said one person who stands in a state of subjection, dependence, undergoing the influence of something. "
  • Figuratively, "says all that is in a state of subjection, dependence. Slavery tobacco. The slavery of fashion. The slavery of the passions. By metonymy, imposing a constraint activity. This work is lucrative, but it is real slavery. "

Legal definitions

Irons slave

Several international instruments have attempted to define the concept of slavery.

  • The Slavery Convention (1926) the League of Nations states in Article I that "Slavery is the status or condition of a person over whom any or all attributes of ownership or some of between them. " The article also defines the slave trade as "any act of capture, acquisition or disposal of a person with intent to reduce him to slavery; any act of acquisition of a slave with a view to selling or the exchange, any act of disposal by sale or exchange of a slave acquired with a view to being sold or exchanged, and, in general, every act of trade or transport in slaves. "
  • The International Labour Organization in 1930 adopted a definition of forced labor that can be compared with that of slavery: "the term forced or compulsory mean all work or service exacted from any person under the threat of any penalty and for which the said person has not offered himself voluntarily. "

Special Uses

  • The ILO has considered forced labor , the Child Labour (see article).
  • The concept of slavery or servitude is often used as political or ideological point: anti-capitalist notion of wage slavery , liberal concept of slavery tax , reasoning and arguments of liberal pacifists (pacifist or not) equating military service a form of slavery (which the ILO Convention of 1930 clearly excludes .

History

Section of a slave ship as it appears in the comic Passengers wind.

Sources of slavery

A hereditary condition

The inheritance of slave status is historically recurring. The terms and the degree of formalization of rules of transmission are variable. During the Roman classic, this status is inherited through the mother, without any attention being paid to the condition of the father . Called verna a slave born. For the U.S. , where legislation is moving through time and, more importantly, differentiated states, the transmission of a slave by the mother is largely dominant. Early texts are showing the status of the Maryland Code of 1664 and Virginia in 1705 . The law has sometimes responded to rare cases of union between free and slave women by requiring children to serve the master of their father, for life or for a specified period .

As for Omar , in the second half of the seventh century , Islamic law is against the foot of this mode of transmission, asking that the child of a slave is free if the owner is the father of the child. The "mother of a child" - the title is official - is released on the death of his master . Islamic law is on this point in the continuity of Mesopotamian laws that have survived: a free father and widower who marries a slave can even make the child born of this union his heir if he expressly adopted. The progeny of a free mother and a slave is automatically free .

The court

The Code of Hammurabi mentions for the Mesopotamian legal sanctions leading to slavery, for example, the repudiation of his parents by a child adopted . Under the Roman Republic, certain offenses carry the loss of civil rights (capitis deminutio maxima): the deserters and citizens who have stolen from the hundred and can be sold into slavery by a judge, outside Rome, however . Under the Empire , the condemnation to the mines (ad metalla) is one of the most dreaded punishment. The United States , free blacks could be sentenced to slavery for a series of legal offenses rather wide: the reception of a fugitive slave, the fact remain on the territory of some states such as Virginia, a year after his emancipation.

The abandonment of children

Slavery affects historically the most vulnerable populations and children first. The fate of the abandoned child and often led to slavery in Mesopotamia and later in Greece and Rome . In the past two ancient civilizations, the right exposure allows the abandonment of a child, usually before a public building, a temple for example. The foster child is subject to the whim of his "benefactor" and rarely escapes slavery.

When he is not abandoned, the child may also be sold. Contracts of sale of children, dating from the Third Dynasty of Ur , that the practice appears to be widespread among civilizations msopotaniennes .

Debt bondage

Main article: Debt bondage.

Debt bondage is the result of a procedure, sometimes framed in law, who was to pay a claim by the abandonment of self-ownership to a creditor. Common among poor peasants Athens, the point of being forbidden by Solon in the sixth century BC. AD , it is one of the forms of slavery persist in the contemporary period.

War and raids

It is common in history that enslavement is the fate of prisoners of war. The latter is so often a factor in the resurgence of slavery. Evidenced by the influx of slaves in Rome following his various military campaigns victorious ( Punic wars , war of the Cimbri , Gallic War ) or the maintenance of slavery in the Iberian peninsula following the struggles that engage Arabs and Christians in the eighth to the fifteenth century. In contemporary times, the conflict in Darfur is an example of links that can maintain slavery and military conflicts.

The raids, carried out by pirates or on behalf of a political entity, are another way to supply human merchandise. In the ancient Roman , Mediterranean piracy fueling a booming business that has its specialized intermediaries and commercial places like the island of Delos. Piracy of Barbary in the Mediterranean for its part will remain active until the nineteenth century.

During the various drafts experienced by the history of mankind, the capture of slaves is often undertaken by groups that do not themselves slaves, or only in limited extent. If lanados Portuguese, active on the African soil, supplied the slave ships, their participation in the power of triangular trade was such a minority. The vast majority of supplies to the commercial centers was the result of coastal states, local leaders or merchants themselves African, whose activity has gradually focused on the slave trade. Similarly, during the ancient Greek, slave traders bought the captives to intermediaries, often non-Greek, which we supply arrangements remain largely unknown . The capture of slaves was therefore largely "outsourced" by companies able to establish a sustainable system of human exchange dealer with companies that supplied them with slave labor.

Trade

The slave market
Gustave Clarence Rodolphe Boulanger v.1882
How the Christian prisoners were sold as slaves in Algiers market. Dutch engraving from 1684.

Commercial networks have evolved in response to the demand for slaves which has long confused with major economic and political centers. In the Antiquity , commercial networks have turned to Greece, Carthage and the Roman Empire. If traffic is attested from the Archaic period is the increase in demand in the sixth century BC. AD causing it seems the development of a large-scale commercial distribution .

Markets, fed by traffickers specialized manpower provided directly in barbarous Greek places ( Corinth , Cyprus , Delos , Athens ...). In Rome, a market was held in the heart of the city, the Forum , near the temple of Castor .


During the Middle Ages , trafficking is moving towards North Africa, Mesopotamia and Mediterranean Europe ( Italy , Catalunya , Crete , Cyprus , Majorca ...). The main trade routes find their source in sub-Saharan Africa and European regions not Christianized (trafficking in Slav pagan and Christian from the Balkans ,).

After exploring the African coast in the fifteenth century , Portugal introduces a bill facing the Atlantic islands and the Iberian Peninsula. In modern times, the European slave trade evolves into a form known as the transatlantic of triangular trade that continues the sixteenth to the nineteenth century . Estimates of the number of prisoners vary according to the authors, 11 million (Olivier Petre-Grenouilleau ) to 50 million (Victor Bissengu ).


The Arab slave trade remained active from ancient to modern times, its traditional supply areas are black Africa (trafficking-Saharan) region of the Black Sea or the eastern coast of Africa ( Zanzibar ). The ramifications of this trade seem to radiate, although perhaps in reduced proportions, the Far East and found the XIII century traces of black slaves on the Silk Road . In terms of trafficking organized by Africans themselves, 'traffic intra-African, "the paper trail virtually nonexistent until the nineteenth century make it difficult to assess quantitatively credible. But the Arab trade is not confined to the slave trade because during the Regency of Algiers (time before the conquest of Algeria by France ), Christian prisoners were sold as slaves in the market of Algiers.

The current forms of slavery meet the same characteristics, including networks of pimping , turned to places of consumption.

Functions

The functions of slavery have varied greatly in different societies and historical periods. First, it operates traditionally distinguished on the basis of importance held by slaves in the general economy of production relations and symbolic relations. This denotes a society in which slaves play an indispensable role in its overall performance in terms of "slave society" (slave society), to distinguish it from "slave societies" (With Society Slavic) employing slaves without making an indispensable link in their economic and social system. Historiography generally considers ancient Greek societies and Roman, the economic and social system of the West Indies , Brazil and the Caribbean during the colonial period (the seventeenth century to the nineteenth century ) and the Southern States United before the Civil War as examples of slave societies. Conversely, the medieval West or the Arab world, who know slavery, are treated as slave societies, not as slave societies .

The slaves have completed the course of history a wide range of professions and social functions. In ancient societies, slaves are so present in all sectors of the economy, without any job or do their own reserved. They can work as a teacher or doctor , are very active in sectors that require the manipulation of money, banking in particular , but also in the craft (shops ceramics ). The case is however an exception: it is common in history that slaves were excluded from certain occupations and confined to the work considered the most degrading.

We can distinguish, in history, a number of recurring uses of slavery. In the primary sector, the use in mines and quarries and as agricultural labor, especially in the plantation economy , is common to much of the slave societies. Domestic slavery and sexual slavery are perhaps even more than for strictly economic slaves, widely represented throughout human history. Finally, the use by the state is common for the accomplishment of tasks of public works and roads. The use of slaves for military or police service, more rare, is one of the salient features of Islamic civilization.

Mining and quarrying

In ancient times, slaves are essential to the operation of quarries that provide materials for large groups of buildings of great cities Roman or Greek. In Athens, slaves were the main scavengers of the silver mines of Laurion , necessary for the monetary stability of the Greek city . Lauffer even estimates that about 30,000 slaves were able to work alone in these mines and their processing mills . Under the Empire, Rome, condemnation to the mines (ad metalla) is one of the most feared legal sanctions. In the Middle Ages, the slaves are used, Genoa , for example, in the exploitation of saline . In the Spanish colonies in America, black slaves but especially in India are heavily used in mining gold, silver and copper. The Portuguese side will import their black slaves to exploit the rich gold deposits of the Brazilian Minas Gerais , discovered in the late seventeenth century.

Slavery agricultural

Often tied to large estates, farm slavery grew massively in antiquity. In Athens, he dominated in farms whose needs for labor exceeded only forces a family . In Sparta , the helots , whose status was similar to that of a slave, provided the bulk of the supply of the city. At the end of the Republic, large olive groves and famous vineyards of central Italy used almost exclusively of slaves ; the ergastulum was one of the modes of population management of slaves considered the most dangerous. It is these areas of high concentration of slaves, including the southern peninsula and Sicily , in areas practicing extensive livestock farming, which left large servile revolts which was facing the Republic.

Despite the development of serfdom in the West since the eighth century , slavery remained present in rural areas, particularly in agricultural areas of the monastery . In the Arab world, large-scale use of slaves in agricultural areas is virtually absent, with two exceptions: in Mesopotamia in the ninth century and Zanzibar in the nineteenth century as a result of the explosion in demand clove . In Mesopotamia, the slaves are mainly used for growing sugar cane, a heavy consumer of labor. After the Crusades , Europe took the form of organization of work in areas where it tried to import this crop, especially in the Iberian Peninsula and the Mediterranean islands. The export of the plantation economy in the Portuguese Atlantic islands ( Canary Islands , Sao Tome ) and then by the Spaniards in the Americas is a continuation of the westward movement, the system becomes a feature of the American colonization, which almost immediately turns to Slavery for land use. Cane sugar was at the origin of the slave trade that began up to the sixteenth century. Then, the development of tobacco crops and cotton will, in the southern United States, the level of demand for slave labor.

Domestic slavery

If a function does not directly economic, domestic slavery allows homeowners to release some free time (otium) essential to social, political and artistic. It is very common in Rome and Athens, where even the poor citizens often have a domestic slave. Thus, according to Finley, Athens, every man, financially able to have slaves, has at least one. This is most often a handyman, who follows him wherever he goes and, depending on its resources, a woman, forced chores .

Virtually absent from the agricultural world, the slave is instead ubiquitous in the domestic sphere Arabic. The sexual division of labor, as in the Greco-Roman antiquity, clearly marked: where the men served as gardeners, caretakers and handyman, women served as nurses, maid, cooks or seamstresses . The vast majority of "poor whites, poor peasants from the French Antilles, had also designed a slave to housework. In the wealthier segments of society, domestic slavery is often a conspicuous feature. It is estimated that during the height of the Assyrian empire, a wealthy family of Babylon has an average of three to five slaves . In the tenth century , a caliph of Baghdad, under the dynasty Abbasid , has no less than 10,000 slaves .

Sexual slavery

p> The exploitation of women's bodies for reproductive functions or pleasure is a recurring motif of enslavement. The ancient mythological stories are an indication of the common character that was of this sexual slavery. The Trojan cycle repeatedly refers to this form of slavery is the fate reserved by the Achaean women Trojan after taking the city of Asia Minor. Sexual slavery is a fact widely used in antiquity, through prostitution .

In the Arab world, sexual exploitation for Gordon Murray is "the most common reason to acquire slaves" . The status of concubine and is reserved solely for slaves and in the case of childbirth, these were protected from the sale and could be granted a clearance . In wealthier homes, surveillance of women in harems is entrusted to one or several eunuchs , which is another incarnation of the authority given to the master on the reproductive functions of his slaves. The dynasty Safavid sultans of Constantinople or kept up the harems large which affects the operation of material influence over the political life . More generally, harems and concubinage were two basic elements of patriarchal society.

If no status equivalent to that of concubine existed in Christendom, the sexual exploitation of slaves in the American colonies were frequent as evidenced by the high number of cross-fertilization that often forced the authorities to look into the status of children born to this type of union.

Public Slaves

They are owned by the state and ensure the tasks of general interest. The slaves are employed as workers (for road works), secretaries and accountants in the administration essential for the proper functioning of various public services and the surveillance of sewers and public buildings. The first appearances of fire services date back to Egyptian times but Rome has reused this principle with slaves. Firefighters Roman ( Vigils urbanization ) were often called upon to fire in arson or accidental (including buildings Romans called ).

Economic value

Classical economics and the critique of slavery

The question of the profitability of slavery emerged in the eighteenth century with pre-classical economic thought and classical. Arguing for the superiority of free labor, the Physiocrats and Adam Smith were at that time questioned the economic value of slavery. There are also traces of this argument in some thinkers of the Enlightenment and, later, in the anti-slavery. The physiocrat Dupont de Nemours summarizes all the arguments advanced in support of this view when he states that "political arithmetic begins to show . According to this view, productivity is driven by the interests of the worker free to work, and the lack of cost of purchasing and monitoring. To borrow the reasoning of Smith, replaces the salary costs of maintenance and purchasing incumbent owners .

One of the arguments most commonly advanced tip and the cost of monitoring and maintenance of slaves: the abolitionists, such as Victor Schoelcher cite the insecurity in the slave colonies and resulting financial burden for states metropolitan form of transmission and maintenance of many troops, as well as compensation to owners whose property is destroyed on the occasion of slave revolts.

Addition of the arguments that we today call macro. For the French Physiocrats, the development of an internal market is inseparable from the development of wage labor. It is what grows the most daring of them to demand the abolition of the benefits of colonial planters that penalize farmers metropolitan beet sugar market.

Finally, slavery was denounced as an obstacle to technical innovation, dynamism industrious in the northern states of the United States is pointed at the apparent stagnation in the industry of the southern states.

To a large extent, the affirmation of the economic superiority of free labor over slavery remained without empirical foundation. Adam Smith to justify it based on "experience of all times and all countries" , but no comparison other than speculative support his argument does not come.

Contemporary approaches to the profitability of slavery

In the 1960s, the development of cliometrics relaunched in the U.S. debate on the profitability of slavery. The irrationality of the slave system, gasping for breath at the development of capitalism in the north, then generally accepted. Apart from low industrial development of the South, one of the indicators of this crisis was for the defenders of this thesis the rising price of slaves, interpreted as an increase in the price of labor.

The approach Cliometric renewed, not without controversy, the traditionally accepted conclusions about it. The question of the profitability of slavery in the United States does today no doubt, only its rate is still debated. The rate of profit of the planters would be for Meyer 5 to 8%, with peaks of 10 to 13% in South Carolina or Alabama . Robert Fogel and Stanley Engerman's estimate for their part in "10% market price of slaves, a level comparable to that of industrial investment in the northern United States . American studies in particular stressed the fact that the slave is not only a workforce but also an investment: for Conrad and Meyer, increasing the price of slaves was instead an index of market growth. Fogel also noted that the South had developed an industry "Crown", although dependent dynamics of agricultural production, through the transformation of raw materials (sugar, cotton gins, sorting machines, rice mill ...) .

As regards the French Caribbean plantation at the height of sugar prices, Butel Paul believes that the rate of profit of the planters oscillates between 15 and 20% .

Related article: # Triangular Trade Economics.

The output of slavery

The revolt

In Rome, slaves revolted several times, including those who followed Spartacus , a former gladiator who was slain with his companions during the Third Servile War (between 73 and 71 BC. ). Only slaves sick and infirm were released or abandoned by their masters,

Related Articles: Servile War , Rebellion Zanj and Haitian Revolution.

The runaways

Main article: Marronage.
This section is empty, insufficiently detailed or incomplete. Your help is welcome!

Emancipation

Main article: Postage.

The postage can be conducted in 4 different ways:

  • The first is by will of the master (= testamento) is the most frequent case;
  • The second is the census, enumeration of the population every 5 years. The slave master entered on the list, making it a freedman;
  • The third is by court order: the master key or a magistrate the slave of his wand (= vindicta) and utters the following words: "I say that this man is free. "
  • The last possibility is the purchase of his freedom with a nest egg (peculium = i n).

Despite this independence, the slave does not have all the rights of a citizen of Rome, only his son would benefit.

The abolition

British abolitionist medallion (1795)

In France, 16 Pluvise II ( 4 February 1794 ), the Convention voted to abolish slavery in French colonies (or what remains of it). This measure will be repealed by Napoleon Bonaparte May 20th, 1802 under the influence, including the Treaty of Amiens. Back from the island of Elba in 1815 , Napoleon decreed the abolition of the slave trade, which aligns France over the decision just taken by the Congress of Vienna. Its resolution is confirmed by the Treaty of Paris November 20, 1815. Slavery was abolished in 1833 in England and 1847 in the Ottoman Empire and in the Swedish colony of Saint Bartholomew. La France , it waits 1848 , the year that sees Victor Schoelcher to pass, finally, the abolition decree as regards France.

In 1865 , the United States enact the 13th Amendment prohibiting slavery. The issue of slavery led Abraham Lincoln to promise its abolition if elected. His election therefore led the Southern States to seek secession. This was refused (she had indeed deprived the federal coffers for most of his taxes), leading to civil war. The Civil War that followed will be the bloodiest in the history of this country. He noted that Texas had seceded from Mexico when the latter had earlier abolished slavery too.

Although the liberation of slaves is a charity in Islam, Muslim countries are still reluctant than Europeans to abolish slavery: Albert Londres in Pearl Fishers, said regular traffic in slaves in Saudi 1925 ; the last countries in the world to ratify the abolition of slavery are the Saudi Arabia in 1962 and Mauritania in 1981, but with still no implementing decree adopted in 2000.

Positive law, the prohibition of slavery contained in sections 4 of the European Convention on Human Rights and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , Article 8 of the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights of the UN, the Geneva Convention of 1926 , New York 1956 , the ILO in 1930 and 1936.

Persistence

Main article: Modern-day slavery.

Slavery has not disappeared with the abolition of treaties and of slavery in the Western world. In 1931 , journalist George Schuyler (en) published Slaves Today: A Story of Liberia . Today slavery still persists in parts of the world as the Arabian Peninsula, the Indian subcontinent, Niger, Mali and Mauritania. The International Labour Organisation (ILO) estimates that 25 million people currently living in conditions akin to slavery, hence the term " modern slavery ". According to the UN every year two million people are enslaved.

Slavery reappears now in Sudan. The Muslims of North reinstated Shariah during decolonization and apply force to the black Christian and animist south who had rebelled. They repulsed the Equatorial Province, the most unhealthy, resisted their best since independence. So the government forces they massacred civilians in many villages and continue to remove many children to convert to Islam and use them as slaves in Khartoum.

In Mauritania , despite the official ban in 1981 , slavery is a practice that continues. On 8 August 2007 , the country's parliament passed a law criminalizing slavery, punishable by ten years imprisonment .

By semantic shift, some situations are similar to modern slavery:

In 2000 , the UNICEF estimated that 200,000 children were slaves in West and Central Africa. According to the International Organization for Migration (IOM) 200 000 women and children are victims of slavery.

The practice of child soldiers may also be considered a form of slavery, especially as the psychological hold on implementation of children, plus the physiological dependence obtained by the use of hard drugs .

Memories of Slavery

Days of commemoration of the abolition exist in all Caribbean islands except the island of St. Bartholomew . 2006 marks the year of the recognition of historical responsibility of the French state about slavery, whose victims are now commemorated every May 10 This day is also the anniversary of the adoption of the law Taubira , big step in the process affecting memorial to slavery, which it describes in particular " crime against humanity. "

The place reserved in the collective memory is also some notable personalities, including "runaway slaves" and some figures like the mulatto Solitude, which has resulted in a novel.

First edition of Oroonoko ( 1688 )

Literature

Philosophy

Arts

Painting

Film and television

References

  1. himself Deriving from the Greek "sklabos"
  2. Cf for the etymology of the word "slave" Alberto Manco, On the toponym Schiava 'slave', Forschungen Indogermanische 113/2008.
  3. Dictionary of the French Academy Article "slave", 1.
  4. Dictionary of the French Academy Article "slavery", 1.
  5. Dictionary of the French Academy , article "Slavery", 2.
  6. a and b Dictionary of the French Academy , article "slave", 2.
  7. Dictionary of the French Academy , article "Slavery", 3.
  8. League of Nations, Slavery Convention, 1926
  9. ILO Convention on Forced Labour, 1930
  10. UN Economic and Social Council, on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery, 1956 See also

Related articles

Bibliography

Evidence

  • Frederick Douglass , The Life of Frederick Douglass, American slave, written by himself, Gallimard, Paris, 2006. First published 1845.
  • Mungo Park, Travels in the interior of Africa FM / La Dcouverte, Maspero, Paris 1980, ( ISBN 978-270712629-0 )
  • Jehan Mousnier, Journal of the slave trade, Editions de Paris, Paris, 1957.
  • Theodore Canot, Adventures of a slaver, ed. The discovering, Paris, 2004.
  • Jean-Pierre Plasse, Diary of a slave, ed. Words and the Rest, Paris, 2005.
  • Dieudonne Gnammankou, Abraham Hannibal , the black grandfather Pushkin , ed. Presence Africaine, Paris, 1996, ( ISBN 2-7087-0609-8 )
  • Olaudah Equiano , the true story in itself of Olaudah Equiano, the African, Caribbean slave, free man, Caribbean Publishing , Paris, 1987.
  • Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, "Letter on blacks" in Pajou Jean-Charles, Slaves of the French islands, Paris, editors free, 2006, ( ISBN 2-916399-01-1 )
  • Dominique Torres, Slaves - Two hundred million slaves today, Phoebus Publishing (May 13, 2005) ( ISBN 2-7529-0085-6 )
  • Raffard Arnaud de Brienne, misinformation about slavery, the Evening Star Collection, Fol Iron Editions Workshop, 2006

Historic and theoretical

European Convention on Human Rights
General Preamble Article 1
Rights and
Freedoms 		Article 2 ( right to life ) Article 3 ( torture ) Article 4 (slavery) Article 5 ( liberty and security ) Article 6 (fair trial) Article 7 (no punishment without law) Article 8 ( privacy ) Article 9 ( freedom of thought ) Article 10 ( freedom of expression ) Article 11 ( freedom of association ) Article 12 ( marriage ) Article 13 ( effective remedy ) Article 14 ( discrimination ) Article 15 ( state of emergency ) Article 16 ( political rights of aliens ) Article 17 ( abuse of rights ) Article 18 (restrictions)
Additional Protocols Protocol 1 Protocol No. 4 ( read online ) Protocol No. 6 : Abolition of death penalty ( read online ) Protocol No. 7 ( read online ) Protocol 13 : Abolition of death penalty in all circumstances ( read online ) Protocol No. 14 : procedural reform ( read online )
European Court of Human Rights Decisions by the European Court of Human Rights

Leave a Reply


Frequently Asked Questions

1 vote, average: 4.00 out of 51 vote, average: 4.00 out of 51 vote, average: 4.00 out of 51 vote, average: 4.00 out of 51 vote, average: 4.00 out of 5 (1 votes, average: 4.00 out of 5, rated)
Loading ... Loading ...
Help us improve the wiki Send Your Comments