Sassanid

Ardashir who routed the last king of Parthia ( Arsacid ) Artaban V until it ended in the defeat of the last King of Kings Shahanshah , Yazdegerd III (632-651). The latter, after 14 years of struggle, unable to repel the Arab Caliphate, the first of the Islamic empires. The territory of the Sassanid Empire included all of Iran, Iraq, Armenia, South Caucasus (including Dagestan in the south), Central Asia, South West, the Afghanistan West, fragments of Turkey, Syria , part of the coast of the Arabian Peninsula, the Persian Gulf region and fragments of the Pakistan Western. The Sassanid empire Eranshahr called their "Iranian Empire" .

We consider the Sassanid era as one of the most important periods in the history of Iran. In many ways, it represents achievement at the highest level of civilization, Persian and was the last great Iranian Empire before the Muslim conquest of Persia and the adoption of Islam. Sasanian Persia had a definite impact on the Roman civilization and the Romans regarded the Sassanid Persians as equals, as evidenced by the letters of the Roman emperor at Shahanshah : "To my brother ... "Their cultural influence extended far beyond the borders of the empire to reach Western Europe, the Africa , the China and India , and played a role in the formation of medieval art Europe and Asia. This influence is perceived as at the onset of the Islamic world and in the conquest of Iran by the Muslims. Unique and aristocratic culture of the dynasty is the proof. Abdolhossein Zarrinkoob will even say that what we then call the culture, architecture, writing much should the Islamic Sassanid Persians, and spread to in other countries Islamized ^Sources

Sasanian period has learning difficulties including a lack of sources. There are several types of sources used by historians:

• Official sources (rock inscriptions for the start of the period, seals and bubbles for the end, numismatics )
• Secondary sources (Armenian historians, Syriac literature, texts in Pahlavi later, the Arab-Persian literature post-Sassanian)
• Archaeological sources (rich sites, but little explored and little published today)

History

It usually divides the Sasanian period into three:

• The ^Third and ^Fourth Centuries, which correspond to the constitution of the empire, the development of agriculture and urban planning.
• The ^fifth and early ^sixth century, where we see some decline and difficulties facing the Hephtalites.
• The ^sixth and ^seventh centuries, a period that begins with the reign of Khosro Anushirvan, marked by a revival of growth and a rapid terminal decline.

^III - IV ^centuries

Sassan , founder more or less legendary, was a priest of the temple of Anahita at Istakhr and proclaimed himself a descendant of Darius III , last ruler Persian Achaemenid defeated by Alexander the Great. However, it is 224, with the victory of his successor, Ardashir , the last Parthian king peacock V , which really begins the Sasanian period. Having rapidly conquered the Parthian territory, Ardashir was crowned in 226 and died in 241.

Ardashir direct descendant of priests serving the goddess Anahita to Istakhr. Early third century, these priests acceded to the governorship of Persia to Fars. But any doubt about the origin of Ardashir and the links that would back its supposed ancestors and Sassan Papag. We do not know if it is a natural or adopted child or Papag Sassan, and if Papag is the stepfather or the son of Sassan. Sources on the links between early Sassanid (Sassan, Papag, Ardashir and Shapour) are insufficient to determine ^, . Papag ran originally a small town, Kheir. He managed 200 for Gocihr file, the last king of Bazrangids and proclaimed himself king. His mother, Rodhagh, was the daughter of the governor of the city of Persis. Papag and his eldest son Shapur managed to rule over Persis. We're not sure what happened after that because the sources are unclear. What is certain is that after the death of Papag, Ardashir, then governor of Darabgird , faced his brother Shapour to seize power. According to sources, Shapour about to meet his brother when he was killed by a collapsed roof. His other brothers were shot to 208 and Ardashir proclaimed himself king of Persia . Then Ardashir moved his capital to the south and founded Khwarrah-Ardashir (formerly Gur, later Firouzabad). Dominated by high mountains and easily defendable (narrow necks), surrounded by a high circular wall probably copied from that of Darabgird, it included a large palace in the north which we can still see the remains.

Ardashir rapidly extended his territory, demanding the allegiance of the princes of the region of Fars, and captured the neighboring provinces of Kerman, Isfahan , Susa , and Mesen. In 224, the Parthian king Artabanus IV , worried, ordered the governor of Khuzestan to march against him. But Ardashir prevailed. Artaban then decided to confront him, but after the battle of Hormozgan (Bandar-e-Hormoz current), peacock was killed. Ardashir then proceeded to invade the western provinces of the Parthian Empire, moribund . Crowned in 224 at Ctesiphon he took the title of Shahanshah. The inscriptions mention that Adhur-Anahid was her "Queen of Queens", but its connection with it are not documented. Thus began the reign of the Sassanid which lasted four centuries .

The son of Ardashir, Shapur ^I. , continued expansion of the empire by conquering Bactria and the western part of the empire Koushan while leading several campaigns against Rome by invading Roman Mesopotamia. Beaten to Rhesaina Ras el Ayin (Iraq) in 243, he had to abandon these territories, but the following year, the Roman emperor Gordian III was defeated at Misiche then murdered by his own troops. Shapour concluded an advantageous peace treaty with the new emperor Philip the Arab , then resume the fight at 252 and beat the Romans Barbalissos which, under the Emperor Valerian , suffered a disastrous defeat at Edessa. Shapour captured Valerian, who remained a prisoner for life and immortalized it in triumph by engraving the scene to Naqsh-e Rostam , and also Bishapour in a more elaborate version. This site contains four tombs of the dynasty Achaemenid and Sassanid September. In 260, he penetrated into Anatolia, but suffered a huge defeat by the Romans and Odenathus , ally of Palmyra , lost his harem and all the territories he had conquered Roman .

During the reign of Bahram II , Ctesiphon, the capital, was sacked by the Roman emperor Carus and the majority of Armenia , after half a century of Persian rule, was ceded to Diocletian . Narseh , successor, fought another war with the Romans and was defeated in Armenia in 298. The last Sassanian then assign five provinces east of the Tigris and renounce their pretensions in Armenia and Georgia . Narseh ceded his throne in 301 and died in 302. His son, Hormizd II mata revolts in Sistan and Kushan but had to yield to the nobility. He was killed by Bedouins in 309.

Nevertheless, many problems occur on the western borders as Oriental. To the east, the Sassanid causes gradual expansion of uprisings among nomadic Kushan , who refuse to cede their territory, and engage in many battles. A little later, at the end of the ^fourth century , it will be the Huns , the Chionites then Kidarites who will surge on Iran, and eventually will settle in Transoxiana and Gandhara.

But the Roman world also does not accommodate the arrival in power of a dynasty which seeks only to expand, and incessant conflicts occur between these two powers. May be noted the victory of Shapur ^I. on Valerian in 260 , which was followed by setbacks and other victories before eventually leading to a peace treaty in 384 between Theodosius and Shapur III : Facing the threat of the Huns The Romans have a policy of state allied and decide to pay the Sassanid that they protect the Caucasus and block the peoples of Central Asia.

One can also mention the many struggles against Arsacids , one small Arabian dynasties of the plain, which skirts many Bedouins.

^fifth and early sixth ^century

In the fifth ^century, threats to the eastern border, including from the Hephtalites , are stronger. If V Bahram Gur (421-438) manages to get a win, was taken prisoner Peroz fifty years later, in 476, and throughout the late ^fifth century , the Sassanid remain dependent Hephtalites. In addition, disturbances due to lower economic status than before and a flourishing religion rigorous burst, especially in the early ^sixth century , during the reign of Kavadi ^I..

^VI and VII ^century

From the reign of Khosro Anushirvan ("the immortal soul"), Chosroes called by the Greeks, the reforms put in place a new tax system, which was later taken over by Arabs. Power is now entrusted to a lesser nobility, rather than large landowners. The empire spread over southern Arabia, to control trade between Byzantium and the Far East (India, China). The victories that put an end to the domination of Hephtalites, also lead to a significant expansion to the east, to the Oxus (Amu Darya present).

Khosro Anushirvan was very famous in Iran: many words and many facts are attributed to him. It carries great public works like irrigation canals, or foundation to Shapur Jund-i of a medical school based on the Greek theories. Also under his reign are welcomed at the court of expatriate Greek philosophers and scientists after the closing of the Neoplatonic School of Athens in 529).

Under Parwiz Khosro II (the triumph), territorial expansion continues, with the annexation of Syria, Egypt and Palestine. But the cons offensive of Heraclius finally leads to the plundering of the royal residence of Dastajird, then the assassination of Khosr at Ctesiphon in a sling in 628 of the nobility. This rule, however, remains associated with a period of luxury, with the construction of the palaces of Qasr-e Shirin and Dastajird, and the great taste that is going to poetry and music.

Kavadi II's reign, marked by a peace treaty with Byzantium , which induces a decline in the territory of Khosro ^I, marks the end of the heyday of the Sassanid, and the beginning of an anarchy that concludes that 'with the Arab conquest. In 637 and then taking Ctesiphon in 642 Nehavend defeat marked the end of the empire. Yazdegerd III fled to Merv and ends up being murdered in 651. His son Peroz III takes refuge at the court of China and the Sassanid dynasty survives for some time as governor of a small Chinese territory .

Sassanid Rulers

• 224 - 241 : Ardashir ^I.
• 241 - 272 : Chhphr ^I.
• 272 - 273 : Hormizd ^I.
• 273 - 276 : Vahram ^I.
• 276 - 293 : Vahram II
• 293 - 293 : Vahram III Sagan Shah
• 293 - 302 : Narseh
• 302 - 309 : II Hormizd
• 309 - 309 : Adhur-Narseh
• 309 - 379 : Chhphr II
• 379 - 383 : Ardashir II The Benefactor
• 383 - 388 : III Chhphr
• 388 - 399 : Vahram IV Kerman Shah
• 399 - 420 : ^I. Yazdegerd Ulathim
• 420 : IV Chhphr
• 420 : Khosro the usurper
• 420 - 438 : Vahram V Ghura
• 438 - 457 : II Yazdegerd Sipahdost
• 457 - 459 : III Hormizd
• 459 - 484 : Peroz ^I.
• 484 - 488 : Valash
• 488 - 496 : Kavadh ^I.
• 496 - 498 : Zamasp
• 498 - 531 : Kavadh ^I.
• 531 - 579 : Khosrow ^I. Anushirvan
• 579 - 590 : Hormizd IV
• 590 : Khosrow II Parviz
• 590 - 591 : Bahram VI Tchbn
• 593 - 593 : Hormizd V
• 591 - 628 : Khosrow II Parviz, restored.
  • 594 - 600 : Vistahm
• 628 : II Kavadh Schiry
• 628 - 630 : Ardashir III
• 630 : Schahr-Baraz
• 630 - 631 : Brndkht (queen)
• 630 : Khosro III
• 631 : II Peroz Gushnaspdeh
• 631 : Azarmedkht (queen)
• 631 : IV Khosro
• 631 - 632 : Hormizd VI
• 631 : Khosro Farrukhzad V
• 632 - 651 : III Yazdegerd
• 651 - 677 : III Peroz

Socio-political

The Sassanid dynasty shows a great sense of administration, international trade and farming (irrigation and dams). It is an oral culture with a strong centralized power and a vast communications network. The incessant wars that shook the empire are also an important factor to consider.

Organization of society

The company is divided into three categories on the structure of Indo-European , each headed by a chief (salar). There are as follows:

• priests,
• Warriors
• farmers

The artisans are first inserted into the class of farmers, before being recognized as a category of its own. This system of feudalism is generally quite stable but it requires a good balance between nobility and religion. The movement of revolt "populist" who was born in Kavadi ^I, who rebelled against religion Mazdean and calls for the community of wives and property, shows that the rupture of this balance leads to trouble. A second major revolt, more related to a difficult geopolitical situation, will also be launched at the end of the ^sixth century.

Organization of royal power

The king is the head of the Sassanid state. Shapur ^I. was the initiator of the Sasanian royal title by calling themselves "King of Iranians and Iranian-Not" (shahanshah eran Anran ud). He exercised the main functions of political, military, judicial and administrative.

p> The mode of inheritance is difficult to establish. It seems that the power goes by the son and brothers, with a decisive intervention of the nobles. Often, the king enlisted a successor in his lifetime, and at the head of a large area (like the ancient heart of the kingdom Kushan , or Armenia ) to learn the practice of politics. Anyway, the throne is still occupied by a member of the lineage of Ardashir, with the notable exception of Bahram VI , suggesting a deep commitment to the Sassanid royal family.

At the beginning of the period, there was a continuation of Parthian structures, based on seven large families Arsacids but without giving them too much power. But most of them were eventually removed. Local dynasties, from the Sassanid royal family, were installed in some areas, such as Sistan. They were led by figures with just the title of "king" (Shah). Generally, the Sassanian empire appears to be more centralized than its predecessor Parthian. Only a few tribal kingdoms and vassals remain, as in Iberia ( Georgia present) or the territories of Suren, Karen and Varaz, ancient Parthian noble families.

The court and high society are divided into four classes:

• the expense of a sovereign country (shahdaran).
• princes of royal blood but without command of the province (pehram screws).
• large (vuzurghan).
• nobles (Azadani).

Headquarters

The king was assisted in his task by a prime minister with powers unknown. Other dignitaries had an important position:

• eran-spahbdh : chief of warriors, who serves as a military commander, and is also responsible for the administration of diplomatic affairs of the kingdom.
• eran-dibherbdh: the head of the bureaucracy, he leads a team of secretaries, each with specific functions (justice, revenues of the kingdom of the court, stables, the Treasury, fire temples and religious donations).
• vastryoshbdh: the head of agriculture and handicrafts, in charge of levying taxes.

The tax was used to fill the state finances. It could be land, and only concerned with the peasants land, the amount shall be defined in terms of returns on it. The other type of tax was the poll tax , which were exempted nobles, priests, soldiers and members of the administration.

Provincial Administration

From Shapur ^I, the empire is divided into twenty-six provinces, which are sometimes vassal kingdoms, located at the periphery. The provinces were ruled by a governor, Marzban. In junior, there was a smaller administrative division, headed by a group selected from dehqan, small and medium landowners.

An inscription found at Ka'ba-ye Zartosht provides us with the list of provinces of the Sassanid Empire during the reign of Shapur ^I.. She leaves the central provinces and then name the outlying provinces: Persia , Parthia , Susa , Mesen Asuristan ( Mesopotamia ), Adiabene , Arabistan (Msopotramie North) Atropatene ( Azerbaijan ), Armenia , Iberia ( Georgia ), MACHELON, Albania ( Caucasus East) Balasagan (Caucasus), Patishkhwagar (around the Alborz ), Medea , Hyrcania , Margiana , Arie , Abarshahr, Carmen ( Kerman ), Sakastan ( Sistan ), Touran , Makran , Paradne, India (southern the Indus Valley), Country Kushan (from Peshawar to the Sogdiana ) and Mazun ( Oman ).

An ethnic distinction is always made between Iran and non-Iran, as reflected in the royal title.

Army

The Sassanid army centered around heavy bodies like war elephants and armored cavalry, was one of the most effective of late antiquity.

His model, based on provincial nobles (Azadani) who finance their equipment and training by the revenues of a fief given by the king, has influenced all cultures have coexisted.

Economy

Currency

The Sassanid hit a gold coin, but it is reserved for prestige. It is money that is mainly the payroll of the armies and ransoms, and bronze used in daily cases.

Agriculture

This is the great agricultural development, Susa and Khuzestan , through irrigation, which allows the development of cities. The land is divided into three main groups:

• The Kings have large areas including game reserves.
• Nobles also have a lot of land, but since I Khrosrow, taxes are diverted to power.
• Small landowners (dehqan) are kinds of "knights". Paid by the donation of a fee, they derive their main resources.

The construction of dams, large canals and bridges, can increase the area cultivated, especially in Khuzestan, in the Diyala River Basin and in Fars. Crops ( cereals , rice , sugar cane and from the ^sixth century , sericulture ) can be exported. The selection of breeds of horses will be used later in the Arab conquerors to the creation of Arab horses and said that astonished both by the first Crusaders agility.

Exports

Besides the products of agriculture, Sassanid also export manufactured goods, especially silk. Indeed, from the late ^fourth century to set up relations with China for export of raw silk in particular. Sasanian Iran is in control of the western part of the Silk Road, and therefore holds the monopoly of trade, to Byzantium and Europe in particular. Iranians settled even in China from the ^sixth century , the relations developing in particular through the caravans and Nestorian missionaries.

Trading takes place around India by sea (port of Mesen) and to Syria (Dura Europos and Palmyra) by land. Zagros products shipped by barge on the Tigris and Khabur, a tributary of the Euphrates, which itself is not navigable. The Sassanid use wooden rafts on skins inflated with air (kelkehs) as did the Assyrians already and will continue to be used in the nineteenth ^century. These rafts can carry several tons of goods. A flourishing trade also takes place with Central Asia.

Religion

The Sassanid dynasty marked the heyday of Zoroastrianism , which is then elevated to a state religion. Sassan officer himself was the temple of the goddess Anahita in Istakhr.

General Principles

Zoroastrian religion, founded around 1000 BC. BC by Zoroaster is henotheism : it includes a main god, Ahura Mazda (the god of heaven), it nevertheless recognizes others as Anahita (goddess of war and fertility) and Mithras (god of the sun and justice). Under the Sassanid, there was a trend towards a dualism between a good principle (Spenta Mainyu, Ahura Mazda related to) and an evil spirit ( Ahriman ), which coexist in every living being. This dualism, clearly highlighted in Manichaeism the beginning of the Sasanian period, will remain present in Shiite Islam Twelver ^{Founding Texts}

The founding text of Zoroastrianism is the Avesta , now largely lost. It is written down ⁱⁿ the fifth century at the earliest, but the first known copy dates back only to ^the tenth century. The Avesta contains Ghatas particular, songs composed by Zoroaster , the Yasht, hymns addressed to the Zoroastrian pantheon, and twenty-one Naskh that contain comments on the ghats, ritual, and justice. Works resume later Pahlavi themes cosmogonic, mythological and metaphysical.

Clergy under the Sassanid

The unification of the clergy under the Sassanid was mainly the work of mwdedan Kartir , whose career began in the reign of Shapur ^I. and became mwdedan mwbed the reign of his successor. The clergy is composed of: the senior priests, or everyone involved mwbed an ecclesiastical district and placed under the authority of mowbedan, a kind of pope. Large mowbed form a sort of college. He must also report Herbede, lay education teachers and rad, very senior judges, who may often have more power than mwbed.

Application

The Zoroastrian religion remains throughout the Sasanian period, and even more generally, always torn between earthly needs and spiritual commandments (incest, for example).. Very folded in on itself, quite close to the Jewish Orthodox religion Mazdean advocates often intolerant positions that lead to persecution ( Christian , Jewish, Manichaean and different theological schools). She is in constant position of weakness vis--vis other religions who have written texts: thus Manichaeism , syncretistic attempt that interests Shhphr ^I. before being severely repressed in the ^third century by his successors, continued survive thanks to the writing of his principles. Manichaeism, religion founded by Mani , son of Pattig, whose ancestry dates back to the Parthian nobility, is a religion that advocates above all else tolerance and acceptance of other faiths. Mani claimed himself as a disciple of the Nazarene (Jesus), but also Buddha and Zoroaster. More than anything, he invited the men to spread a generous faith that exclude no deity, no messenger, bringing together all faiths under one temple, where everyone could pray to their god. He explained the world through duality, the fact that in every being there is an element of darkness and a light hand. Researchers have struggled to shed light on this long forgotten prophet. Indeed, his work, there is nothing left. Mani was also a doctor, painter and philosopher. Although his teaching was a great success with the people, he does obviously not pleased with the religious caste of the Magi, who saw him as a talker disorder. But Mani approached the ruling family, thanks to his talents as a healer, and became a figure estimated by the King of Kings Shapur ^I.. He dedicated a book, Shabuhragan. He became over time adviser and perhaps even a friend. The king of kings granted him his protection against the Magi who saw a dim view this rapprochement between the prophet and the Sassanid king. Manichaeism then experienced its heyday.

Shapur also formed a friendship with a rabbi named Shmuel. This favored relations with the Jewish community and delayed the repressive laws that future kings lead against her. But disputes between them, even though both wanted to "conquer" it was not in the same way. Shapur ^I. did in arms, while Mani did with words. After the death of the king of kings, his youngest son succeeded him but died shortly afterwards, probably murdered by the master of the Magi, Kirti, because it adhered fully to the Manichean beliefs. Bahram ^I. succeeded him and that was the end for Mani. Moreover, Mani himself was executed by Bahram ^I, under the influence of Zoroastrian Magi and the High Priest Kart. Very close to the caste of the Magi, the despised Manichaeism and eventually put to death its founder. Bahram II also followed the precepts of the Zoroastrian priests ^{Intellectual Life and Science}

Sasanian civilization does not necessarily have a great inventive power, but it often includes elements of other civilizations that adapts and combines in its own culture, such as writing and currency. The Sassanid stand out in the building objects, and show a great manual dexterity, especially in coins and engraved gems. A special feature is the trilingual country: the Pahlavi (middle Persian), Greek and Parthian are three languages fluently spoken by many Iranians at this time. We find this feature particularly in rock inscriptions, mostly bilingual and trilingual.

The academy Djund-i Shapur , founded by Shapur ^I. , is an outstanding feature of Sasanian culture. Containing a particular medical school, lessons are based on Greek principles of Aristotle and Galen , made in Iran through Christian Nestorians. Including medicine grows through foreign doctors (especially Greek), because of ritual defilement issues related to religion Mazdean. Many Byzantine philosophers also find refuge in the academy after the closure of schools in Athens (the Academy among others) by the Byzantine emperor, in a movement called Translatio Studiorum. A close relationship between philosophy, medicine, astronomy, science and faith.

Literature

According to Iranian tradition the first Persian poem was the work of Bahram Gur V, but remained isolated from reactions to the Zoroastrian clergy. Although this legend is false, since we know that there was already a poetic tradition in Parthia and perhaps even before, it shows the status of poetry at that time considered a dangerous element because of the false clergy. Arabic sources refer to literature in Middle Persian and thus attest to its existence. Several works are preserved, among which have included:

• The Avesta, written down and completed at this time.
• Manichaean hymns, some of which were already before the Sassanid.
• Translations of foreign texts as the fables of Kalila wa Dimna , came from India , or the book Sindibad, translated to the late Sasanian period.
• The Khawtay Namak, a national epic that will inspire Firdawsi the ^tenth century to the Shah Nama.

Music

There are quite a large iconographic showing musicians, and we know from sources that they enjoy considerable support, especially under Khosrow II. The great singer, instrumentalist and composer Barbad is thus protected from the king. Sassanid music is a database of traditional Iranian music. One can note the emphasis on vocals, both through religious hymns (ghats), still sung in India today, songs extolling the greatness of kings, the exploits of the heroes or the beauty of nature and human feelings. Some of these songs correspond to seasonal festivals. But instrumental music also takes a leading role. The instruments are of several kinds:

• Plucked like lutes and harps.
• struck string, including the Santur.
• wind, ie, reed flutes as Ney and a kind of oboe
• percussion.

The music is monophonic, that is to say that there is a melody, without accompaniment below. Transmitted orally, it leaves much room for improvisation and can be played in many circumstances. There is healing and music and dance music, for example.

Sassanid music will be exported to Europe and Spain. It is the starting point of the Arab-Andalusian music and the instruments currently used in classical music have slowly evolved from oriental models themselves very close to those of Sassanid.

Visual Arts

The Sasanian period is a peak for the visual arts. Objects are made of different materials: glass, silver, stone, hard as rock crystal, fabrics ... Urban planning and architecture are also developed considerably, with the creation of new forms such as Chahar Taq, or the use of techniques and Roman motifs.

References

See also

Bibliography

• A. Christensen, Iran under the Sassanid, Copenhagen, Annals of the Guimet Museum, 1936, reprint 1971
• (In) The Cambridge History of Iran 3, The Seleucid Parthian and Sasanian Periods, Cambridge University Press, 1983
• P. Huyse, ancient Persia, Les Belles Lettres, Handbook of Civilizations, 2005
• Touraj Dari, The Political History of LCD In The Sasanian Period, The Sasanika Project: Late Antique Near East Project Read online
• (In) RN Frye, The Cambridge Ancient History - XII - The Crisis of Empire, and Stephen Edwards Iorwerth Eiddon (reprint Cambridge University Press) ( ISBN 0-521-30199-8 ) Internal Links
  • Late Antiquity
  • History of Iran
  • History of Uzbekistan

  External Links

  • Sasanika project of the University of California.
  • Photographic database of Persia on livius.org

Sassanid Empire

226 - 651

Dark green: the Sassanid Empire under Chosroes (620). Green, the disputed areas with the Byzantine Empire. Light green: the Sassanid Empire at its peak (610).

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