Administrative organization

Administrative map of China

The People's Republic of China comprises 22 provinces () (Island of Taiwan is under the leadership of Beijing's 23 ^th province, see the article on Taiwan for more information). In most provinces there are 5 autonomous regions (), home to a significant percentage of several ethnic minorities, and 4 municipalities () for major Chinese cities and 2 Special Administrative Regions (SAR) ().

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Demographics

China is the most populous state of the planet in front of India (which has no policy on birth control). It is estimated that one hundred and thirty million Chinese live on less than one euro a day ^{one-child policy}

According to official estimates, about four hundred million births were averted thanks to the birth control policy . Until the early 1970s , China was experiencing a very strong population growth. To limit the growth of its population, it adopted a regulation limiting the size of urban families (with the exception of members fifty-five ethnic minority ) children, two children for rural families. The birth rate is thus reduced from 21 per thousand in 1990 to 12.4 per thousand in 2003. Population growth is itself 0.6% in 2003 against 1.44% in 1990 .

This policy is however not always strictly enforced, particularly in remote rural areas where administrative control is less present. Certain privileged families also prefer to pay the fines, the amount has not been updated recently. Violation of this policy by wealthy people, celebrities and members of the Chinese Communist Party, however, is increasingly repressed .

China has 320 million children under fourteen years old. The ban has increased the quality of life of Chinese. With this legislation, we reduced poverty, pollution on the planet, and the concentration of population. ^{Gender Imbalance}

The ratio of births is 123 males per 100 females in 2005 .

It is largely a consequence of birth control. The boys are considered more advantageous economically in rural areas, the use of abortion selective, theoretically forbidden, and desertion, and the resumption of the traditional practice of female infanticide, have generated a surplus of boys. There are many orphanages for abandoned children, but only 2% of them do not find parents adoptive , and remain in the orphanage until adulthood . Although culturally explainable by the sexism , the origins of this ratio has recently been partly correlated with the consequences of hepatitis . ^, .

The deputy chief of investigative services on crimes that between 30,000 and 60,000 children disappear each year in China without being able to indicate, however, the percentage attributed to human trafficking. In August 2009, the Chinese Ministry of Public Security has established a pilot program to inform people of migrant trafficking .

The Government of the People's Republic of China tries to reduce the problem through awareness campaigns through family planning , emphasizing the role of girls, but also by prohibiting prenatal diagnosis of sex.

Fifty-six ethnic groups

The People's Republic of China is a multiethnic state composed of fifty-six ethnic groups which together form the "Chinese nation (Zhonghua Minzu). Equality in rights and duties of all these ethnic groups is listed in section four of the Constitution : "All nationalities in the People's Republic of China are equal. The State protects the lawful rights and interests of ethnic minorities, it guarantees and promotes the equality, unity and mutual assistance among all ethnic groups in China. Discrimination and oppression of ethnic groups are prohibited. Any act that threatens the unity of ethnic groups or which promotes the division is prohibited . "

Hans

The Hans , a large majority, 92% of the population. This ethnic group is relatively heterogeneous, and can also be understood as a broad set of customs that share close cultural and linguistic characteristics (especially the grammar ).

Fifty-five minority

The People's Republic of China recognizes the existence of fifty-five ethnicities in addition to Hans in the Chinese nation. They are composed of Chinese citizens with a mother tongue or culture non-han .

According to article four of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China , "people of all ethnic groups are free to use and develop their own spoken and written language and to preserve or reform their own customs. .

Article 23 of the Law on Ethnic Regional Autonomy stipulates that "when recruiting officers or workers in enterprises or institutions in an autonomous region, people of national minorities are given priority. Staff may even be recruited from among the national minorities of the country or grazing areas, but leave the people's government of the province or region is needed. "

In addition, the law on birth control allows certain groups, particularly in Tibet and in sparsely populated West, to have more than one child per couple, unlike Han entitled to only one one child .

However, some minorities complain that they feel the differences between what the law provides and its application in the field.

The most publicized case is that of Tibet. The Tibetan government in exile and his supporters in the West to denounce a genocide and discrimination, including attacks on freedom of religion , a cultural marginalization leading to economic marginalization, or authoritarian rule on the birth control despite the specific arrangements ^, .

Although less publicized, a feeling equivalent exists among Uighur Muslims of Xinjiang , who consider themselves victims of Han domination , and little tolerance law on birth control despite the specific arrangements and procedures of abortion in for violations of the law, violations of religious freedom and cultural and political settlement to the West that they see as a colonization Han .

According to the Government of the People's Republic of China, this type of assertion is the result of movements he describes as " separatists. " He denounced the Tibetan government in exile headed by the fourteenth Dalai Lama . He also opposed the independence movement of East Turkestan and East Turkestan Islamic Movement is accused of having used means terrorists and violent . The government accuses them of providing the Chinese who were training in camps of Al Qaeda in Afghanistan among others to participate in a jihad , refuted by this movement .

The fifty-five non-Han groups total, in 2008, over 100 million citizens, the equivalent of Mexico's population.

A socialist market economy

Liberalisation of the economy

Chinese civil society is evolving rapidly and adopt new habits, given the country's modernization.

The Chinese Communist Party defines the economy of China as an "economy socialist market ", a" form of socialism with Chinese characteristics. " From 1978 to 1989 , the Chinese government has reformed the country's economy, which is moving from a planned economy like the Soviet to a "market socialism", maintaining the rigid structure of control by the Chinese Communist Party, this who has called the "world's workshop".

To this end, the collectivization of agriculture has given way to a system of individual accountability of land. Local executives have gained more flexibility, managers have been introduced in industry, enabling the development of many small businesses , so named getihu (). This policy has attracted many traders and investors abroad. Control of prices has been released, with the notable exception of essential commodities for farmers.

In 1992 , the official name of the system becomes " market economy socialist "and change of adjectives is the beginning of the changing nature of class in the state. The public sector is beginning to drown in the ocean of the market economy and from 73% of industrial output in 1988 to 35% in 1992. This allowed the transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy and the rediscovery of the foundations of economic liberalism , while safeguarding the communist regime's official.

In this new economic system, enterprises or danwei are struggling to find their place and meet more and more difficulties. Their losses have reached a record high of 102.6 billion yuan (12.75 billion U.S. dollars ) in 2005 , an increase of 56.7% year on year, according to figures from the State Bureau of Statistics (NBS ). On the first two months of 2006 , losses of public enterprises controlled by the state have already reached 26.2 billion yuan, 3.25 billion U.S. dollars. The increase in production costs , a system of inefficient pricing, excess capacity and significant technological gaps are the main causes of this situation, according to Jiang Yuan , a statistician at the State Bureau of Statistics.

The government has firmly placed between parentheses the equality of classes during this period, led by the slogan of Deng Xiaoping : "Get rich! "Personal enrichment ( individualism ) and consumption (supported by political neo-Keynesian from 1997 ) became new economic drivers, accompanied by a gradual professionalization of technical management , to improve productivity ( division of labor ). The government also worked to attract capital foreign sources of critical economic development : the special economic zones (SEZs), free of taxes , were created for this purpose, extended gradually to all the coast. With the introduction of free trade , there was a quadrupling of gross domestic product (GDP) has occurred since 1978.

The preferential tax incentives are also the source of tax incentives to produce in China, whether for export or for domestic market of one billion three hundred million people. The PRC is attempting to harmonize the system of regulations and taxes charged on the companies, both Chinese and foreign. Thus, the preferential tax rates enjoyed by exporters in special economic zones and coastal cities are subject to revision. Chinese exports to the United States accounted for 125 billion U.S. dollars in 2002 , while imports reached U.S. 19 billion. This imbalance is attributed repeatedly by the United States to exchange rate considered unfavorable between yuan and U.S. dollar. However, for China, a revaluation of the yuan as the wishes of the United States would create inflation very large, even generating internal social tensions. On 21 July 2005 , the People's Bank of China announced it was implementing a system for the yuan fluctuate within 0.3% per day versus the U.S. dollar, against 3% maximum relative to a basket of currency abroad, including the yen and the euro (see Chinese Currency Regime ).

Catching up economically

It is estimated that China was the world's largest economy for much of the last twenty centuries ^{, , ,} . Until the eighteenth ^century and the Industrial Revolution is also in China that were found living standards the highest in the world . It was under the Qing dynasty that China's economic development began to slow, while the West went slowly from a predominantly agrarian society to an industrial society. In 1820 , China accounted for 33% of GDP worldwide, against 9% today .

In 2010, China reached the rank of second largest economy behind the U.S. with more than 9% of global GDP. This unbridled growth of economic activities is more due to investments and exports to domestic consumption . The current economic development of China is one of the world's fastest, since they recorded a growth medium which, for thirty years, is approaching ten percent per year.

People's Republic of China since 2001 member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) .

Growth in China is mainly driven by exports. Their value has more than doubled in four years, reaching more than 1000 billion U.S. in 2009, making China the world's largest exporter. The bulk of this trade is with the European Union , the United States and Japan. The trade balance of China's surplus with many countries. The strengths of Chinese exports are the tractors , the watches and toys (85% world market), the cameras and laptops (55% of the market), televisions and washing machines (30%), 15 % for steel .

Shanghai , a vibrant, modern city.

The presence of foreign firms on Chinese soil is largely responsible for the sharp acceleration in export growth. They attracted the workforce qualified in coastal areas where they are located. Only 41% of Chinese exports come from enterprises fully Chinese. Today, 39% of exports from China are made by companies whose capital is one hundred percent foreign and 20% are the result of partnerships between foreign companies and Chinese companies . Mainland China maintains its attractiveness for companies with cheap labor, non- unionized and docile. A worker unqualified in China costs about one U.S. dollar per hour, which is well below the minimum of industrialized countries. Non-organization of Chinese workers is a substantial benefit for employers , who find a job flexibility impossible to implement in liberal democracies.

Another aspect of the Chinese economy for the future: the low prices of items not from the workforce. This is due in part to the existence of price controls and the security of supply sources inherited from the previous type economy Soviet : SOEs continue to be dismantled and returned to their workers in areas of increased competitiveness The effect deflationary induces continues to put pressure on prices in the economy.

The consequences of this economic growth are many. The income of an annual average Chinese worker is 1300 U.S. dollars. The wage increase steadily along the coast peaceful.

Energy

The Three Gorges Dam in the province of Hubei , is the largest dam and the largest generator of electricity in the world .

China became the third largest consumer of electricity after the United States and the European Union. However, consumption per capita remains relatively low, the order of 1700 kWh per year (cons over 13,000 kWh per person per year in the U.S.). The cuts to electricity or rationing are common in the country . Yet forty-two giga watts (the equivalent of what produces the United Kingdom ) were added to the electric park in 2004 and 2005. Electricity production has more than tripled from 1990 to 2004. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IEA) expects that production will double in the next ten years. According to MIT , China would build every week the equivalent of two new coal plants with a capacity of 500 megawatt power each. About 75% of this electricity is produced by coal plants. It appears that coal will continue to dominate the electricity sector for several decades . However, in 2009, China became the third largest producer of wind power, with an installed capacity of 20 GW, after the United States and Germany. It could become the world leader in 2011-2012. For 2020, Beijing wants green energy account for 15% of its energy mix . China is also moving toward development of nuclear power. 6 nuclear plants were built in coastal regions, 10 more are under construction. The installed capacity is currently 10 GW, it should be 75 GW in 2020, then representing 5% of production .

With consumption doubled between 2000 and 2006 (1200 Mtoe in 2006), China consumes more coal than the United States, Europe and Japan combined, absorbing over 38% of the coal consumed worldwide. The share of coal in primary energy consumption in China is 70%, whereas it tended to decline during the 1990s (from 76% to 67.4%), it has picked up since 2003. Coal plays a key role in supporting economic growth in China, whose energy needs are enormous. Two factors explain the dominance of coal: reserves are abundant (with proven reserves estimated at 114 billion tons, the third largest in the world behind the United States and Russia, the total reserves are estimated at about them 5.57 trillion tons by China's General Geological Bureau) ensuring energy independence, and power is cheap (especially given the low cost of labor). According to the IEA, the growth in coal consumption should increase 5.5% annually until 2015 and then 1.7% per year until 2030. The forecast for 2030 is 2399 Mtoe of coal consumed annually, an increase of 119% over 2005. In 2007, China was the largest coal producer, with 2.35 billion tons, representing 44% of world production . The coal-fired power plants are causing serious environmental damage, helping to make China the largest global polluter ^, . The share of nuclear power accounts for only 0.5% of the country's energy production. China is ^the 5th largest producer of oil, however, domestic production is not enough. In 2005, due to its strong growth, China was forced to import 30% of its oil consumption. If this growth continues at this pace in 2025, the country will import 82% of its oil needs . Involved in the deadlock, China seeks to secure its supplies of oil : the Russia , some countries are African , countries in the Gulf and Iran are its suppliers. The exploitation of new oilfields in the south will not suffice to meet demand and control of operations in the South China Sea becomes a strategic issue. Moreover, the economic efficiency of energy consumption is one of the lowest in the world with a ratio of GDP per ton of oil equivalent of the lowest .

Agriculture and Industries

According to estimates by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development , the sector agriculture still represents 15% of gross domestic product of China and provides 40% of all jobs. A share that was 71% in the late 1970s . This sector is therefore, despite the development industry recently, an important part of the Chinese economy. Over 800 million people live in rural areas. Agriculture, which occupies most of the active population (323 million rural labor force), remains a fundamental sector of the Chinese economy. The farms are owned by village collectives who rent to farmers, often with leases of thirty years. This semi- privatization was accompanied by a boom in productivity and production.

Since 5000 years, rice / A> activity dominates rural China and is the staple food of majority of its inhabitants. Chinese agriculture is penalized by the limited arable areas. In addition, it has only 10% of global arable land and must feed 22% of world population. Chinese agriculture is also handicapped by fragmentation, with 200 million households each operator, on average, an area of 65 acres. Moreover, because of the urbanization increasing the pollution and desertification , it is estimated that arable land decreased by about 2 500 km per year. Yet between 1990 and 2003 , agricultural production increased by 90%.

Although the Communist Party under the leadership of Mao Zedong 's reliance on the peasants to take power, and therefore constitute the basis of its legitimacy, they have had mixed fortunes, reflecting the different options ideological followed in recent decades. The Chinese government remains very attentive to the plight of farmers, which remains more than ever a priority. However, state aid represents only about 6% of farmers' income, against 20% in the United States , 34% in the EU and 58% in Japan.

The incomes of Chinese farmers, however, more than tripled between 1980 and 2000 , which has largely contributed to the decline in poverty in the country. 400 million Chinese living in rural areas are out of poverty between 1979 and 2002. This does not prevent the growing inequality between rural and urban residents. As a result, China is facing a rural exodus important. Faced with conditions increasingly difficult in their lives, peasants migrating in large numbers to urban areas. An estimated 8 million peasants from the countryside each year to seek work, and that since 1979 , between 80 and 200 million peasants have migrated to the city.

Land near major population centers are coveted for dealing with urban development. Zhou Tianyong , an influential economist, estimates that since the beginning of the reforms until 2003, about 6.7 million hectares have been withdrawn from agriculture. Farmers were only compensated for 10% of the market price ^{Toy Industry}

Since the 1990s, China is the world's largest manufacturer of toy ^, and is described as "world's workshop".

Quality control and safety of exports

During the summer of 2007 was held on scandal suppliers of paints and pigments that are found to be forgeries of raw materials without the knowledge of Chinese workshops. Concerned about the questioning of the safety of toys , China has tightened controls of quality, safety and reliability to assure importers of toys in the world ^{, ,} and prohibits the use of lead paint in toy manufacturing . In addition, its products are subject to safety standards of importing countries ^, .

Chinese Currency

The Yuan (in simplified system ; in sinograms traditional ; in pinyin is the national currency of the People's Republic of China. It is also known as renminbi (in simplified system ; in sinograms traditional ; in pinyin yuan (abbreviated as RMB), meaning literally "people's currency".

Although its official name is the renminbi is the yuan, which term is used in general and especially in the current language kuai. The yuan (or kuai) is divided into 10 (or 10), themselves divided into 10 There are notes of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 yuan notes 1, 2 and 5 Jiaosi, and notes of 1, 2 and 5 fen (the production of the latter three has been arrested 2007). The pieces, little used, are 1 yuan, 5 Jiaosi and 1, 2 and 5 fen .

China is often accused of deliberately maintaining a low exchange rate to facilitate exports. This accusation is, however, denied by the U.S. Treasury, which in its semiannual report Dec. 19, 2007, acknowledges that Beijing is not manipulating its currency to derive commercial benefits ^{, ,} , although still considers that the yuan is undervalued against the dollar .

Politics

Institutions

The PRC adopted its current constitution on December 4 1982.

This section deals with mainland China.

In the terminology of political science the PRC was a communist state for much of the ^twentieth century and is still regarded as such by many observers. It is difficult to characterize the nature of the political structure of the PRC. The scheme has been described as authoritarian , communist , socialist. However, many prefer to associate the words "communist" and "capitalist" to describe the PRC. Deng Xiaoping proposed the phrase "market socialism" to describe the evolution of the PRC.

The Communists have retained the idea that a communist society should be effectively controlled by those who work have refused to label China a communist, and have sometimes preferred to speak of "state capitalism".

The PRC government is controlled by the Chinese Communist Party. In the absence of separation of executive, legislative and judicial branches, the PRC is a dictatorship , an authoritarian regime . Although strides have been made towards political liberalization, including through contested elections at the village level, the party retains effective control over government decisions. Using authoritarian methods to subdue the offenders, the state tries to reduce dissent by improving the economy, to some extent the term critical, tolerant and sometimes openly critical voices when they are not considered subversive, c that is to say organized.

The organs of state power are the National People's Congress (ANP), the President and the Council of State affairs. Members of the Business Council of State include the Prime Minister, a variable number of vice premiers (now four), five conciliators state (theoretically equal to the deputy prime ministers, but with reduced portfolios), and twenty-nine ministers and committees of the Council of State affairs. In the 1980s there was an attempt to separate the functions of State and Party with the Party deciding on policy guidelines and the State with responsibility for implementing them. This effort was abandoned in the separation of the central government in the 1990s , the political leadership of the State being held by Party leaders, creating a concentration of power in a single beam.

At the same time, an agreement has been decided between the Party and state offices at levels other than the Government, and we do not know now a member of the executive at national level which is at the same time Party secretary. There are special cases for special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau where the Communist Party does not work at all, and the autonomous regions, modeled on Soviet , heads of the executive are members of a group ethnic local, general secretary of the Party being a Han exotic.

Under the Constitution of the People's Republic of China, the NPC is the highest organ of state power in China. It meets every year about two weeks and approved the new outline policies, laws , the budget , and major personnel changes. Much of the legislation of the PRC was adopted by the Standing Committee of the NPC. Most initiatives are represented on the Standing Committee for them to be considered by the Council of State affairs after obtaining the approval of the Committee of the Politburo of the Communist Party. Although the PNA generally approved guidelines and personal recommendations of the Council of State affairs, the PNA has increasingly seized of its role vis-a-stick vis the national legislation, and reached to force the revision of certain laws. For example, the Business Council of State and the Party have been unable to pass a tax on diesel to finance the construction of highways.

Domestic policy

Censorship

The censorship is routine in all treated the media infrastructure and the CCP responds promptly to all organizations it considers a threat to the regime, as was the case during the events of Tiananmen. However, the repression that the CCP uses or attempts to operate has its limits. The media today have a freedom of action, even without objective concerted, publicly displays a number of problems resulting from corruption and inefficiency of sub-Party cadres. Although protests against the Party are illegal, they occur regularly at the local level, are sometimes tolerated, and that the media coverage that in turn is prohibited. There is a ministry of propaganda which applies censorship on the means of expression, including internet. The Film Office has control over the dissemination of films he has made such withdraw American movie theaters on Da Vinci Code in June 2006 . Television is not immune to censorship because the government has decreed that the cartoons (mostly Japanese and American) will be prohibited between 17h and 20h after 1 ^st September 2006 . Internet is also controlled (all connections are filtered), and many websites are inaccessible, such as www.freetibet.org (liberation of Tibet ), or YouTube, Twitter and gateway Live.com (Windows Live Messenger), Flikr, and the new engine Microsoft Research, Bing.

Support the CCP obtained from the population is difficult to grasp, in the absence of national elections; conversations and views expressed reflect a fragmented range of divergent views. Many seem to appreciate the stabilizing role played by the government office, which has allowed the economy to grow without interruption. A major political problem is the increasing disparity between rich and poor and the widespread dissatisfaction linked to widespread corruption among party cadres.

There are other parties in the PRC, although de facto treated as sub-organs of the CCP. The CCP talks with these parties at a special conference called the Political Consultative Conference of the Chinese people. The influence of these parties is very small, although they may act as a point of view outside without real power.

Public Health

Several public health problems of scale emerging in the PRC: health problems related to poor air quality and water pollution, the epidemic of AIDS and smoking or, much higher estimates ^, . In many rural areas of China in the 90s, particularly in the province of Henan , tens or hundreds of thousands of farmers and peasants have been infected with HIV through their participation in state programs blood collection in which contaminated equipment was reused ^, .

The hepatitis B is endemic in mainland China, affecting a large percentage of the population: about 10% ^Defense

Members of the Chinese army to Shanghai.

China has developed its bomb in 1964. She is a member of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.

"China adopts a national defense policy defensive in nature. China does not claim to hegemony, as is the commitment made by the Chinese people before the world. "(...)" China has a small number of nuclear weapons for its self-defense. It will not be the first to use nuclear weapons, not to use or threaten to use against countries which do not possess nuclear weapons . .

Created in the first half of the twentieth ^century to hunt the alliance of eight nations , the People's Liberation Army (PLA) is the largest army in the world . However, given the composition of this army, its efficacy in the military is considered limited. The LPA includes naval and air forces. The official budget of the PLA in 2010 was 88 billion, not including funds for the purchase of foreign weapons, research and development military and paramilitary structures. China is accused by some critics . This budget represents 7.4% of public expenditure in 2006. China plans to increase its military spending for 2007: this increase is expected to reach 17.8% and stood at 351 billion yuan, or about 34.4 billion . According to other estimates, China is ranked second in the world behind the U.S. (at least 400 billion) .

Space technology development program

Yang Liwei. China is ^the 3rd country in the world after Russia and the United States to have sent a man into space by its own means.

After the Sino-Soviet split, China began developing its own nuclear program and propulsion systems for nuclear weapons. The program for satellite launches was a natural outgrowth of this project. This resulted in 1970 with the launching of Dong Fang Hong I, the first Chinese satellite. China became the fifth country to have launched its satellite independently.

A manned space program was planned since the 1970s, with Project 714, which was to ensure the launch of the shuttle Shuguang. This project failed, however, due to a series of political and economic reversals.

In 1992, Project 921 was known currently allowed. On 19 November 1999, the unmanned shuttle Shenzhou 1 was launched as the first test of the program. After three tests, Shenzhou 5 was launched October 15, 2003, using a rocket Long March 2F and taikonaut (ChineseTaikong, space) Yang Liwei, making China the third country with a powered manned vehicle into space on its own. The second mission, Shenzhou 6 was launched successfully Oct. 12, 2005.

Observers believed that the Long March rocket was modeled on the Russian Soyuz, which is disputed by the Chinese. The program emerged from the PRC has provoked strong reactions to the U.S., where a congressional report following the launch of 2003 observed, "if the most immediate motivation in this program appear to be political prestige, the efforts China will almost certainly contribute to improved military space systems between 2010 and 2020. Scratchy echoes were transmitted via the Indian press, which is ironic about the unpacking of a "forty years old technology." Meanwhile, the status of military space boundaries is complex and uncertain.

In October 2010, engineers at the National Supercomputing Center in Tianjin develop the most powerful supercomputer in the world, Tianhe-I ().

Transport

The Shanghai Transrapid line is the first maglev commercial world. With over 7,000 km of track in service, China has the largest network of high speed line in the world.

Transport in mainland China have been considerable improvements since the late 1990s , as part of the government's effort to create a national network of expressways. The total length of this network was 53 600 km at the end of 2007, making it the second largest in the world by its length after one of the United States , whereas it was only a thousand miles 1988 .

China since 2009 is the first fleet in the world. China is building more cars annually than any other country.

Air transport has greatly increased, but is not affordable for all Chinese. Between 1978 and 2005, the number of Chinese have borrowed a domestic flight increased from 2.3 to 138 million . The long-range transport is still dominated by rail and buses.

The largest cities have one or more lines underground. The city of Shanghai , in addition to having the largest metro in the world, also has a Transrapid , the first magnetic levitation line ( Maglev ) Commercial world, linking the center to the Pu Dong International Airport.

Foreign Policy and Foreign Affairs

Hu Jintao with George W. Bush.

The People's Republic of China maintains diplomatic relations with most countries in the world, making the recognition of the one-China policy (Taiwan as a province of the PRC), a prerequisite to establish official relations with the PRC. It prohibits actively came to China from Taiwan policy frameworks, with the notable exception of the interviews took place in 2005 and 2006. Political demonstrations of the KMT, relayed by television have yet occurred in the city of Xiamen in Fujian , the municipal elections in Taipei Taiwan. Tenzin Gyatso , the ^14thDalai Lama is also banned from visiting China. Li Hongzhi , founder of the spiritual movement Falun Gong regarded by the Chinese authorities as a sect is banned from entering.

In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China as the only valid representative of China to the UN, and as one of five permanent members of the Security Council. The PRC is also considered "founding member" of the UN as the heir to the non-communist China that included the mainland and who took part in the foundation.

CPM leader was a member of the Non-Aligned Movement , but is now a mere observer.

Trade with Taiwan

Relations between China and Taiwan are marked by a status quo: neither independence nor reunification forced.

The island of Taiwan is populated to 98% of Hans and 2% of Taiwan's Aborigines. It is considered by the PRC as the ^23rdprovince of China , even if she does not exercise de facto sovereignty, and it constitutes an internal matter. Historically, Taiwan as the Republic of China sought sovereignty over mainland China, and is de facto independent since 1949 . The Republic of China is a democratic country where people (mostly descendants of Hans) is torn between the desire to participate in a Greater China and that of a split that would result from full independence was proclaimed and recognized the island .

People's Republic of China asserts its continuing opposition to the separatist ambitions of certain political parties (Green camp) of the Republic of China (Taiwan) who are seeking recognition by the international community's independence de facto Taiwan.

The PRC maintains that the execution of a declaration of independence of Taiwan and the refusal indefinitely negotiations for reunification will be translated as a casus belli .

2008 parliamentary elections in the Republic of China on Taiwan: large blue camp's victory (in favor of maintaining the status quo with China) 86 seats out of 113 .

Trade with Japan

Relations between China and Japan have been hurt in recent decades, until 2006, because of Japan's refusal to recognize the crimes committed by its army in China in the first half of the ^twentieth century, notably the massacre Nanjing , and the fact that Prime Minister Koizumi then paid homage to the Yasukuni shrine. The change of Prime Minister of Japan in 2006 put an end to these disputes, the latter recognizing the massacres, and the opening years of Chinese Culture in Japan.

The father of former Japanese Prime Minister Yasuo Fukuda , who was also Prime Minister, had in 1978 initiated a thaw in relations between the two countries through signing a Treaty of Peace and Friendship . Sino-Japanese relations are currently being standardized through the interrelationships intimately linked to trade .

Trade with the European Union

The people of Middle Country remembers the memory of European imperialists in the ^nineteenth century and early ^twentieth century (see unequal treaties , Opium War , Boxer Rebellion , Eight-Nation Alliance ) who looted and destroyed several imperial palaces and were seen as "barbarians" who did not follow the rules they had as the basis of civilization.

It was with some trepidation that the people of the Middle Country addresses relations with the Europeans knowing that he seeks dialogue with mutual respect.

Many nations have criticized the violations of human rights perpetrated by the CPP, which has affected diplomatic, especially following the events of Tiananmen Square in 1989. However, this argument has become less pressing for the strengthening of economic ties with the PRC, the EU and the United States. In Japan Focus, Michael T. Klare but analyzed the diplomatic policy of the Bush administration as marked by the desire to stem the rise of China .

Trade with France

The Franco-Chinese relations are not particularly easy, because countries are far away but also because of cultural differences.

France established diplomatic dialogue with the PRC on the initiative of General de Gaulle on 27 January 1964 / Sup>. Bold move at the time, it was appreciated by the Chinese authorities and was the basis for a constructive dialogue.

Map of countries according to their currency reserves and gold, minus their total external debt (public and private), according to data from the 2009 CIA Factbook.

In 1997 , France and China established a strategic partnership that goes in the direction of strengthening cultural exchanges as well, economically and diplomatically. To commemorate the establishment of diplomatic dialogue in 1964, Chinese President Hu Jintao visited state in France in January 2004 , the year was declared Year of China in France. From an economic perspective, France is the third largest European partner of China after Germany and the United Kingdom. In 2009, French exports to China amounted to 7.9 billion euros, and French imports from China to 29.7 billion euros ^, . The trade deficit between China and the European Union has also widened significantly, reaching 100 billion euros over the first 8 months of 2006 .

November 26, 2008 , China has postponed a European Union-China summit because of the meeting held on 6 December 2008 in Poland between Nicolas Sarkozy and the Dalai Lama , leading to criticism of France . According to Franois Godement, professor at Sciences Po and Ifri and member of the European Council on Foreign Relations , the Chinese decision was calculated, and was, throughout France, Europe, unable to adopt a common attitude towards the Tibet issue .

Following the cancellation of the summit, Jose Manuel Barroso pleaded for unity of Europe. About the same date, the execution by China of Wo Weihan , a scientist accused of spying, has resulted in outrage from most European countries, allowing France not to be isolated on the issue of Human Man in China during this period .

Trade with Germany

Trade with Russia

In 2004, Russia agreed to transfer the island Yinlong and half of the island Haixiazi to China, ending a long dispute. These two islands are located at the confluence of the Amur and the Ussuri , and were the cause of conflict leading to the deterioration of relations between the two countries in the 1960s. This gesture was conducted in a spirit of reconciliation and strengthening economic ties, and has been criticized on both sides. Of Sino-Russian military maneuvers were held in summer 2005, indicating at least on the surface of the effectiveness of this commitment. Critics have emanated from the Kazakh farmers who lost their land on the islands, while Chinese and Chinese communities have criticized the treaty which they say amounts to a legitimization of Russian control of Manchuria outdoor , ceded to Imperial Russia by Qing dynasty following the unequal treaties , including the Treaty of Algn in 1858 and the Convention of Peking in 1860, in exchange for the exclusive use of Russian oil.

Trade with Africa

China's relations with Africa are ancient trade links with the eastern coast of the continent existed since the Han dynasty ^(third century BC. - III ^century AD) .

Chinese aid to development would be partly conditioned by the non-recognition of Taiwan by the recipient countries .

But it is especially in recent years that China is very interested in the economic potential of the continent Africa : in 2005 there were officially 820 Chinese companies established in Africa. Chinese investments have greatly increased as to exceed those on the South-East Asia. Trade amounted to 56 billion euros and China became the third largest trading partner in Africa in 2005. Trade between Africa and China has been doubled between 2000 and 2004 . The Africa is a source of minerals ( copper from Zambia ; chrome of Zimbabwe ), wood and especially in oil ( Sudan ) to Beijing: one quarter of its needs are imported from the continent ^, .

• In return, Africans are buying Chinese manufactured products, including textiles, machinery and electronic goods .
• Chinese arms sales would help fuel wars in Africa such as Sudan, Angola and Ethiopia .

The Chinese influence is based on a discrete and pragmatic foreign policy, as well as diaspora networks already present in many African countries . This presence is not always well accepted by African people. The Chinese have invested projects and public works in the telecommunications market .

Sudan

To diversify its sources of energy, China has invested heavily in Sudan. 40% of the country's oil exports are now destined for China. Oil wealth being donated to the Sudanese government, responsible for atrocities in Darfur, countries criticize the involvement and investment from China as an encouragement to a rogue state. China considers it a matter that is his only resort. More pragmatically, China, a newcomer, no real choice of suppliers ^{Discontent rising and versatility African}

• Angola
  • The country of Jos Eduardo dos Santos profited from 2004 to 2006 credits massive advantage over a short period and became through oil sales, the first African partner of China.
  • In spring 2007, Luanda cancels the contract the company Sinopec to build a giant refinery in Lobito, 3 billion.
  • Many other Chinese projects, as the new airport in Luanda or reconstruction of railway lines are frozen, because of problems mentioned between the Chinese coordinator of the work and subcontracting firms.

The reason for this change is primarily the advances Chinese drowned in the billions of Angolan oil: 34 in 2006, nearly 45 in 2007. With the price of a barrel of crude rose from 26 to 66 dollars from 2001 to 2006 and a production of 740,000 barrels per day to 1.5 million ...

Trade with the United States of America

The Middle Country has been an ally of the United States of America during the Second World War against Japanese imperialism.

During the Cold War, during the Korean War, Army Gen. Douglas MacArthur wanted to attack China and North Korea with atomic bombs before starting negotiations with the Soviets. He repeatedly asked permission to conduct strikes in retaliation on major Chinese cities and wanted to use between 30 and 50 atomic bombs as part of the operation. These positions brought him too aggressive to be removed from office by Harry Truman , then President of the United States of America.

In May 1999 an American bomber B-2

In April 2001 , a spy plane U.S. ^EP-3 Aries II reconnaissance in near Chinese airspace near the island of Hainan , collided with a fighter plane China. The Chinese plane crashed with its pilot, the U.S. spy plane made an emergency landing on Hainan Island. The versions differ: the United States say they have made over international waters, the PRC provides that it was in its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (see position statement). In addition, each country accuses the other of causing the collision. The 24 American crew members were detained 12 days before being released, while the tension between the two countries had increased significantly.

Another area of tension is the Cox report in 1999 which states that the PRC espionage undermined the American nuclear secrets for several decades. ^{Territories controversial}

Although no changes have been made in the constitution , the Republic of China does in fact more claims sovereignty over the continent in the facts and implicitly recognizes the People's Republic of China . The island of Taiwan is a de facto independent country not recognized by the international community ( UN and others) on which the PRC claims sovereignty. The PRC has proposed to the Republic of China reunification under the principle " one country, two systems "idea put forward initially by Deng Xiaoping in 1979 , and formatting by 1981 by the nine-point statement Ye Jiangying . This proposal has been rejected by successive governments of the Republic of China ^{, ,} .

Control of the South China Sea is also a matter of conflict between riparian states (China, Malaysia , Vietnam , Indonesia ). The dispute concerns a series of strategic islands, including the Spratly islands and Paracel. The term "Mainland China" refers to the People's Republic of China without Taiwan , Hong Kong and Macao. These last two areas are special administrative regions (governed by the principle "one country, two systems"). See also the article Special Economic Zone.

In addition to Taiwan, the PRC is involved in several territorial disputes. The CPP takes the irredentism as an argument in these disputes, which is cons-argued by the interest that the PRC would take for natural resources or strategic interest of the disputed areas.

• Aksai Chin , administered by China, claimed by India.
• Arunachal Pradesh / South Tibet, administered by India, claimed by China.

In the islands of the South China Sea:

• Paracel Islands , administered by China, claimed by Vietnam and the Republic of China (Taiwan).
• Spratly Islands : claimed by the PRC, the Republic of China (Taiwan) and Vietnam , some of which are claimed by Malaysia , the Philippines and Brunei.
• Islands Senkaku / Diaoyu , administered by Japan , claimed by the PRC and the Republic of China (Taiwan).

Chinese nationalists regularly demand of Mongolia , Tuva and Outer Manchuria , the Ryukyu Islands ^Education

Class in a public school in the autonomous region of Xinjiang in western China

In 1986 , China has defined as long-term objective the establishment of a nine-year compulsory education for all children. In 1997 , the People's Republic had 628,840 primary schools, 78,642 high schools and 1,020 higher education institutions . In February 2006 , the government revised its targets to increase by promising to make completely free compulsory education to nine years, including textbooks and school fees in poor provinces in western China . In 2002 , the proportion of Chinese who can read and write was 90.9%, including 95.1% of men and 86.5% women , the Chinese youth (15 to 24 years), respectively 98.9%, 99.2% and 98.5% in 2000 . In March 2007 , China announced the decision to make education a "strategic priority" national, with a national budget tripled in two years and an additional 223.5 billion yuan (about 22 billion euros) provided over five years to improve compulsory education in rural areas .

The quality of Chinese universities varies considerably across the country. Most listed Chinese mainland are the Peking University , the Renmin University of China (Renmin University of China) and Tsinghua University in Beijing , the Fudan University , the University of Shanghai Jiao-tong and ' Normal University East China in Shanghai , the Xi'an Jiaotong University in Xi'an , the Nanjing University in Nanjing , the University of Science and Technology of China in Hefei , the University of Zhejiang in Hangzhou , the Wuhan University in Wuhan ^, .

Many parents are very involved in their children's education, investing much of their income. Private tutoring and recreational activities, such as foreign languages and music are very popular among middle class families who can afford it .

In the past, most Chinese parents hoped their children go abroad and despite government attempts to retain the brightest, focusing on the direction of the country. However, with the renewal of China's economic ambition is outdated ^Environment

China since 2009 is the world's leading investor in renewable energy ^, . China produces more wind turbines and solar panels each year than any other country .

CO2 emissions per million tonnes from 1980 to 2009.

China ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 2002 .

China is experiencing major environmental problems. The forest had already fallen sharply eight thousand years ago, which has created problems of desertification , of erosion and soil degradation, as well as floods , which have worsened with the industrialization and population growth especially in the coast and in the basin of the Pearl River. The country has roughly the same amount of water that the United States, but its population is five times greater. Water shortage is particularly acute in the north, very dry, where nearly half the population of China, where demand for water far exceeds the natural supply. The global warming accelerates the retreat of glaciers that feed the major rivers of China, while hastening the spread of deserts, which currently absorb more than 300 000 ha of grassland each year. However, no further precipitate the water crisis that three decades of growth in industrial unbridled. In its race to become the next superpower, China is not content to pump unlimited rivers and groundwater, and it also pollutes the water it is irreversible manner so that the World Bank has sounded the alarm citing "dramatic consequences for future generations." The massive use of oil and especially coal is a source of pollution significant. The explosion of economic growth has resulted in new pressures on non-renewable resources. Many cities are permanently covered with a cloud of pollution. China is one of seventeen mega-diverse countries , that is to say, identified by the Centre for Monitoring the conservation of the UN program for the environment as one of the richest in the world terms of biodiversity. However it is also one of the four countries where a large number of species of mammals are threatened with extinction due to habitat destruction. The most emblematic case is probably the giant panda , which was chosen as a symbol by the World Wide Fund for Nature.

China initially refused the Kyoto protocol but in 2007, Wen Jiabao announced in 2010 will achieve the objectives of the Eleventh Five Year Plan : 20% reduction in energy consumption per unit of gross domestic product and 10% of the major pollutants emission. Programs for reforestation , protection of nature, suppression of filament bulbs , the development of dry toilets , the multiplication of solar panels on the Tibetan plateau , a wind farm and an important city project " high environmental quality 'reflect the efforts. The fishing fleet in China took an increasing share cons on overfishing.

China delighted in 2007 to the United States under the leading producer of greenhouse gas emissions . In twenty-five years, China could produce alone twice as much as all the countries of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development combined. China built in 2006, five coal plants per week .

In 2009, China became the largest global investor in renewable energy. China produces more wind turbines and solar panels each year than any other country.

Characters cultural features of the People's Republic of China

Languages spoken in China

Traditional Chinese values are largely derived from the orthodox version of Confucianism, which reached its peak under the Song dynasty , and became a central part of educational contents, examinations and mandarins. However, the term Confucianism is itself the result of a series of divergent trends, with legalism, all subject to interpretation of the original orthodoxy. In particular, the problem of individual ethical conscience, criticism of governments has largely been silenced by thinkers "orthodox." Some neo-Confucian Confucianism in contemporary interpret this potential criticism, in contrast to the common interpretation of Confucianism, synonymous with submission and political stability.

Since the movement of May 4, 1919 , the Chinese imperial culture and its Orthodox Confucianism was branded as "feudal", but despite this rhetoric tabula rasa, many aspects of traditional Chinese culture have survived. Mao Zedong , the instigator of the Revolution culture, has in a sense imitate the first unifier of China, Qin Shi Huangdi , who had organized a book burning and massacred intellectuals of his time. Mao used the library of Beijing, was a great admirer of classical Chinese culture. Some observers have noted that the establishment of the People's Republic of China does indistinguishable from that of previous imperial dynasties, following the "heavenly mandate" obtained following the years of struggle. The cult of Mao Zedong has undeniable religious dimension, one that suggests precisely an ambiguity between modern nation and ancient political traditions.

During the Cultural Revolution , many aspects of traditional Chinese culture, arts, literature and others were accused of "feudal remnants" and largely destroyed. This tabula rasa, like many times before, was a step in the recovery of the symbolic heritage of China, available in various forms: the revolutionary opera brings together an ancient tradition in the socialist-realist propaganda, as well as Calligraphy of Mao Zedong. Subsequently, following the opening of the country in the 1980s, all traditional forms of art have re-emerged, more and more encouraged by the Cultural Bureau: cultural exchanges are a particular type of trade privileged between the PRC and Taiwan and are a vector of diplomatic exchanges, as in the case of exchange years between France and China. You can also see the support of the Cultural Bureau transsexual choreographer Xing Jing , who has, by its special sexual status in the world.

Other examples point out however that the culture in the PRC is subject to censorship by the Cultural Bureau, known especially for its Internet filtering system. Punk groups are regularly banned when their words are too political rocker Cui Jian , the idol of the events in Tiananmen Square, is prohibited appearances in major concerts. The emergence of contemporary art in China has allowed some form of freedom of expression, whose value is largely moderate subversive by the size of its cryptic language.

secular state, nation Multifaith

The Taijitu : symbol of yin and yang.

China is a secular state that does not proselytize , activities leading to wars of religion, forced conversions, radical religious groups, sects and interference in the affairs of the State religion whatsoever.

Many religions coexist in China, where religious activities are regulated by law. The Chinese government estimates there are about 100 million believers in the country, representing 7.7% of the population. This figure must however be tempered by the strict rules of religious practice in the context of a culture based on state atheism, and the concept of religion or belief itself, a controversial view in especially Taoism and Buddhism. In 2007 , the Oriental Outlook magazine, near the New China News Agency (Xinhua) announces that a third of Chinese are believers . This rate is confirmed by a study conducted by two teachers from a university in Shanghai, East China Normal University in 2005 ^, . Religion with politics is the most sensitive issue in China. Beijing has a policy of repression against sects and religions established: July 29, 2006, the unofficial Protestant church Dashan was destroyed and several pastors and faithful were arrested .

The main religions in China are known: the Buddhism , the Islam , the Catholicism and Protestantism , which can be added on Taoism and folk religion (two specific religions in China), shamanism , the Orthodox Church and the Dongba , which is a kind of paganism lamas, survival of an ancient religion of the Naxi , one of many ethnic minorities of China, originally Tibetan , living in Yunnan.

Buddhism was introduced into China around the ^first century. It spread widely after the ^fourth century and became, gradually, the religion that has the greatest influence in China. It is divided into two schools: the Tibetan Buddhism (Lamaism or), prevalent especially in Tibet and Inner Mongolia , and Buddhism, the Hinayana. It is estimated that there are about 13,000 Buddhist temples in China.

Lao Zi, Myths and Legends of China, 1922 by ETC Werner

Taoism became the ^second century , inspired a posteriori by the writings of philosopher Lo Zi (or Lao-tzu) (), including the famous Book of the Way and Virtue, (in ChineseDaode Jng ) is with the Book of Changes (Yi Jing ), sources of the esoteric Chinese. Today there are over 1,500 Taoist temples in China. ^{Holidays and Festivals}

Sport

In terms of sports, China is now the second nation in the world behind the United States .

Codes

The People's Republic of China for codes:

• B , according to the list of prefixes ICAO aircraft registration ,
• CH , according to the list of country codes used by NATO , alpha-2 code,
• CHN , according to the standard ISO 3166-1 (list of country codes), code alpha-3,
• CHN , according to the list of country codes IOC ,
• CHN , according to the list of country codes used by NATO , code alpha-3,
• CN , according to the standard ISO 3166-1 (country code list) in alpha-2 code,
• . Cn , according to the list of Internet TLDs ( top level domain )
• PRC in the list of international codes of plates
• CN , according to the standard ISO 3166-1 (country codes list), the People's Republic of China for alpha-2 code
• XT (most used code), according to the list of prefixes ICAO aircraft registration ,
• ZB , ZG , ZH , ZL , ZP , ZS , ZU , ZW ZY and, according to the list of prefixes ICAO airport codes.

References

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