Politics
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Polysemic concept, the policy covers at least three meanings.
The policy in its broader sense, that of civility or politikos shows the general framework of a society organized and developed.
More precisely, the political meaning of Politeia, refers to the constitution and therefore relates to the structure and functions (methods, theory and practice) of a community , a society , a social group. The policy covers actions, balance, internal or external development of the company, its internal and its relationship to other sets. The policy is therefore primarily with respect to the collective, to a sum of individualities and / or multiplicities. With this in mind that political studies or political science to expand all areas of society ( economy , law , sociology , etc)
Finally, in a much more limited, the political meaning of Politika, or political art refers to the practice of power, or so the struggles of power and representation between men and women of power, and different political parties which they may belong, as the management of that power.
Summary |
The word politics comes from the Greek which means sometimes or . City or polished referred to here is that of the ancient Greek city-state known today because of the similarity of its organization with that of our modern state (centralized power, institutions, diplomacy ...).
Political History
Political anthropology
According to French anthropologist Balandier , anthropology politics "tends to establish a science of politics, considering the man in the form of Homo Politicus and searching for properties common to all political organizations recognized in their various historical and geographical " .
- Bands of hunter-gatherers. Because of their small size (no more than a hundred individuals), and their mobility, these bands had no need to establish permanent political authorities.
- Lineage societies. Described by Evans-Pritchard in his classic study of the Nuer , the political system involves the combination of several family groups, in which seniors have a particular legitimacy, which enables them to resolve conflict.
- Companies with significant charismatic. Here, power is occasionally represented by a few individuals recognized for their moral qualities or their physical attributes. However, this remains an individual dignity, and is not transmitted hereditarily.
- Chiefdom societies. Some individuals have power and undeniable hereditary, whose extent remains variable.
The existence of societies without states remains questionable.
The Middle Eastern States
During the civilization of Ubaid in Mesopotamia , the phenomenon of economic restructuring initiated at the beginning of the era Neolithic reached a critical level, resulting in the emergence of a new cell sociological, the city and the advent of social inequalities . Furthermore, the invention of writing allows the rational administration of a given space, "the writings, indeed, can wear off messages, noted accounts of record keeping, all resources likely to assist in the highest degree the administration of the State " . The advent of this joint model of the sociological and intellectual technology has helped design a new human structure, the state and its corollary, politics.
From the year 3000 BC. AD, city-states begin to appear in Mesopotamia. They seem to favor political systems close enough to the constitutional monarchy or the republic. A Sumerian poem studied in particular by Samuel Noah Kramer thus states the presence of two meetings to Uruk , one of the assembly of elders, similar to a kind of senate , the other at a meeting of the people. The legitimacy of the king of Uruk appears to depend heavily on these two meetings: he does indeed declare war on the city of Kish after receiving at least the support of the people's assembly . Moreover, the attribution of royal power is rarely hereditary. The term to describe the Sumerian king , Lugal, is indeed in the association of root Lu, man and gal, great. What matters here before all these are moral qualities and not hereditary membership: Sargon of Akkad and obtains the throne with his royal virtues .
Gradually the monarchy tends to strengthen, at once in power (the first ceremonies of coronation , which imply a divine right legitimacy appear in the early second millennium BC. JC ) and extended (the city-states are absorbed by large kingdoms). Democratic and republican institutions, denoted by Kramer, in fact fall into disuse. This strengthening of monarchical authority will promote during the first quarter of the second millennium BC. JC, the establishment of an administration and jurisprudence standardized evolution of which are emblematic codes of Ur-Nammu (to -2100 ) of Lipit-Ishtar (c. -1930 ) and Hammurabi (c. - 1750 ), and the Laws of Eshnunna (to -1760 ) . While these early bodies of law do not be exhaustive and rather similar in style to the moral codes of . However they represent a significant break in that they do not hesitate to correct oral traditions in a rational perspective, "the situation in a Middle Eastern company is very different from that of companies without stories, where customs are absolutely fixed and where change is not sustained and organized "
The consolidation of large centralized states and streamlined, will allow the organization of international relations. From the late second millennium BC. AD to -1100 , an area ranging from Egypt to Elam , and the Saudi kingdom Hittite will be governed by a diplomatic system developed: the Amarna system . Based on geopolitical balance between four or five great powers, this system will have its lingua franca , Akkadian, and its own protocols. Thus, "different kings diplomatic relations are deemed to belong to a single large family or big house (...) the kings of the same status can be treated as brothers, they are smaller son or servants of the first" . The successive invasions of the Sea Peoples put an end to the political structure developed.
It seems that Middle Eastern states have forged almost all forms and political structures. Provided something is still missing: the thought and political theory. Politics is indeed an object well established, but it is by no means a thought: "Never myth, law, custom as a whole will become subject to explicit debate, because they continue to meet the sacred and the sacred alone " . The men of Middle Eastern states were concerned primarily with policy, management of administrative affairs, and very little of the Policy, the state order as a whole - about which party of the divine order in its Overall, can not be disputed, discussed, or simply considered .
The Greek City
Despite previous Middle Eastern, origin policy generally coincides with that of political thought and hence of fact, with the Greek city. Thus the English Hellenist Moses Finley , he could say that the policy "is one of the least popular activities in the pre-modern world." It is indeed, "a Greek invention, or, more precisely, an invention that made separately Greeks , the Etruscans and / or Roman " .
Throughout the second millennium BC. BC , the Greek appears as a single continuous system device Amarna. Indeed, as noted by Jean-Pierre Vernant : "The Mediterranean does not mark on both sides of its banks, cut between the East and West. The Aegean and the Greek peninsula is connected without discontinuity (...) on the one hand to the plate Anatolian (...) the other (...) to Mesopotamia and the Iranian " . In this way, the first known Greek State, the Kingdom Mycenaean , with many features similar to contemporary Middle Eastern monarchies. It is indeed a royal bureaucracy, characterized by an almost maniacal regulation of social life . Moreover, the king or anax has a primarily military and religious authority . Also, politics in the era Mycenaean takes the form of an essentially administrative activity, appearing in a wider cosmological.
Staff from the twelfth century BC. AD the decline of the Mycenaean world will lead to a complete redeployment of political structures initials anax disappears and the local potentates, called emperor does retain more often than religious prerogatives . The backflow of monarchical sovereignty will promote two social forces far virtually excluded from the political game "on one hand the village communities, and the other a warrior aristocracy" . The frequent disagreements between these two forces will necessitate the establishment of political debate or agon , a public square. The power ends when dependence on a single center, to be the product of a constant deliberation: "the arche can no longer be the exclusive property of anyone, the state is precisely what has stripped all private, particular, which are beyond the jurisdiction of the gene, already appears as everyone's business " .
Gradually a political entity is established a new genre: the polis, or city. It is characterized by three main features: the use of rational discourse, publicizing political acts, and belief in the equality of citizens before the law (or isonomy ) . This introduction is invalid old oral traditions, which regulates the game until the political and social. Several legislators, grouped under the generic name of the seven sages will therefore promote a new ethical citizen who demonstrates a desire to streamline justice: the criminal is convicted and more vis--vis his victim, but the whole city .
During this moral ethics, " sophrosyne "or moderation, points all social structures to a" happy medium " . Solon thus imposes a geometric equality, or homoneia, bodies of citizens, in agreement with Reports of musical types (2 / 1, 3 / 2, 4 / 3): first class citizen and receives five hundred measures of wheat, when the last class gets only two hundred . Subsequently the Democrats as Cleisthenes generalize the principle of absolute equality, based on the ratio 1 / 1: each citizen is therefore indivisible entity of a single body: the city . To ensure this principle, Cleisthenes conduct a thorough reform of the Athenian civic space, bringing together traditional twelve tribes into ten tribes: purely conventional, that completes administrative division to streamline the city .
The Political Philosophy
China
Chinese political thought emerges, as in ancient Greece in a context of crisis. The breakdown of traditional political structures arouses in effect in both cases an awareness of philosophical and political.
Effective from the eighth century BC. AD, the decline of the empire of Zhou , allows the various fiefs and lordships of emancipation and to establish multiple independent kingdoms.
Confucianism
In a society divided by Chinese feudalism , Confucius sought to restore order and peace through respect for tradition, the legitimacy of power and social hierarchy.
Beyond its guiding principles, his experience led him to the theoretical conclusion follows: that political power can live and be sustainable, the Prince is obliged to behave as a man of quality, by showing a wise incessantly Example. "If a man knows how to govern himself, how difficult is there to govern his state? "
Taoism
The Legalism
Ancient Greece: Thinking City
The political thought of Socrates comes down to two fundamental contributions . First, the development of a critical method for assessing political knowledge. Unlike Protagoras , Socrates argues that truth exists. However, this truth is not dogmatic: we can achieve that by constant exercise of critical thinking. Restive concepts, Socrates seeks to instill doubt about the morality and effectiveness of political systems, "putting his interlocutors in contradiction with themselves, it shows that the opinion is (...) unable to serve a basis for deliberation and political decision, which ruins the premise Athenian (...) the universal competence of citizens " . Second, the conceptualization of ethics as a subject of science. There, according to Socrates, universal moral laws, we can not find that a truly philosophical education. Rarely innate, learned the science of government, so that for Socrates, the policy appears to be a real profession.
Originally derived from theories Socratic political philosophy of Plato is based on the question of good and faculties of the soul, a matter that affects both individual human behavior as the education : there is not, in fact, For Plato, virtue that could be bought individually, and the philosophy itself is an activity of thought, which always involves education and political conditions that remain to be defined. The political philosophy is, for Plato, is inseparable from moral philosophy (as with any ancient Greek philosophy): politics, that Plato is the first philosopher to identify as such, aims to take care of the souls of citizens , through education. For these reasons, politics is the science of good in general, and is therefore superior to all other sciences and technology, which is why Plato designates as the royal art.
In contrast to Socrates, who leaves the world of ideas to derive practical applications, Aristotle tends to want to rely on observation of reality in order to deduce the theoretical principles. This Aristotelian approach is also true in politics. For Aristotle, man is made to live in community politics. For him, the city is by nature and is inherent in every human group, according to the principle that man is a political animal ( / phusei anthropos zoon politikon)
In his work The Politics , Aristotle discusses the origin and functioning of different political regimes of his time , the fourth century BC. AD , to define the best of them, which should give rise to the Ideal City.
Hellenistic Philosophy will mark a significant retreat from the political agenda.
The Political Theology
Judaism
Islam
Christianity
Renaissance and secularization
Machiavelli represents a radical break from the Christian political tradition and, as such, appears as the first modern political thinker. According to him, indeed, "a new prince in a city or a conquered province should make all things new" . For Machiavelli, three principles must guide the policy: strength, respect for laws, cunning . For Machiavelli, the prince did not need to make profession of gentleman. These political ideas are coupled with a theological interpretation also renewed. In fact, according to Leo Strauss : "Since characterized as tyrannical a way of acting that New Testament attributes to God , he leads us to the conclusion, no, he said that God is a tyrant "
XVII - XVIII centuries: the state of nature and social contract
The question of the state of nature and the social contract is in a particular context of Western thought. From the seventeenth century, begins in fact a challenge to the Aristotelian political ideas, from a cons-humanist argument. For Aristotle in effect: "The state is a fact of nature" and "Naturally, man is a social being," simply because he has mastered the rational language, and is thus able, more than any other animal to come together in society: "Man is infinitely more sociable than all other animals that live in groups." It follows that "Nature therefore instinctively pushes everyone to the political association" and that " -" man is a political animal " .
In contrast, "for the modern age, the humanity of man does not depend mainly on its relationship with others in building a just order" . In the spirit of humanism, the relationship between man and nature is moral or not in fact the collective, but individual. To the extent that man precedes the state, it can not be a fact of nature, and could not be established at a specific time in human history, to meet specific needs not less.
It should be noted that such a conventionalist position existed at the time of Aristotle. Besides a number of sophists cited by him and whose work we have not been transmitted, such as Lycophon, Epicurus shared these views. For the latter, the state was established by convention (Sunkhtai) to enable philosophers of science engage in without fear of insecurity of human relationships: "Epicurus sees the foundation of the city, and more generally ties of law, contracts or agreements between autonomous subjects (...) men join because they have experienced the pain of damage (...) man is not an animal naturally political " . The chance of transmission of texts has helped overshadow the conventionalist position, while relatively common.
Rehabilitated by Hugo Grotius , which establishes the existence, in his Treatise on the Law of War and Peace, a pre-existing natural right to the various political rights, the rule of nature is made clear by Samuel Pufendorf in the first book Law of nature and people. For the latter, the State merely confirms a positive system of law and pre-existing duty in man: there are natural laws, such as the law of sociability, that govern human relationships. However, for these natural laws could actually be implemented, the intervention of a political authority is needed: "The aim of the legislators of this earth is to resolve all external actions, the better it is possible" .
Ideology
The first mention of the term ideology dates back to 1801 , when the publication of Elements of ideology by Antoine Destutt de Tracy. However, the sense that Tracy applied this neologism was nothing political: it was a science of ideas and feelings: "I want this in writing, not teach you, but you do notice anything happens to you when you think, speak, and reason " . It actually does recover its present meaning only from the German Ideology of Karl Marx , written in 1846 , but published much later.
Liberalism
Liberalism is a current of thought in political philosophy , born of opposition to the absolutism and divine right in the Europe of the Enlightenment (eighteenth century), which affirms the primacy of the principles of freedom and individual responsibility on power of the sovereign. It is based on the idea that every human being has a href = "% C3% Libert A9s_fondamentales" title = "Fundamental Freedoms"> fundamental rights that no authority can violate. Consequently, liberals want to limit the social obligations imposed by the authority and the broader social system in favor of free choice of each individual.
Liberalism rests on a moral precept that opposes the subjugation of the individual, from which flow a philosophy and organization of social life for every individual to enjoy maximum freedom, especially in economy. For most liberals, the dichotomy between " economic liberalism "and" political liberalism "is not, as this is the application of the same doctrine in different domains.
In a broad sense, liberalism advocated a society based on freedom of expression of individuals in compliance with the law of pluralism and the free exchange of ideas. It must include a share in the economic sphere, private initiative, free competition and its corollary the market economy , secondly, of political and economic well supported by law and the powers-cons. It therefore enhances the merit as the basis of the hierarchy. This implies an ideal state of law are respected and where minorities to the smaller, the individual, the state being the guarantor of respect and being accountable for its action.
However, depending on the situation (and what everyone can think for yourself) liberalism can manifest itself very diverse, even opposite. The liberal may well be, depending on location or in terms of moments, one that requires the state that breaks a religious traditionalism or oppressive to the individual social (caste, status, discrimination and privileges ...) or to intervene to give everyone a real capacity for economic action (restrained by a monopoly, poverty, lack of education credit or otherwise), or conversely one that opposes the intervention of power.
The limits set in state action and the modalities of public action (including the respective roles of administrative action and the law), shall be especially subject to debate within itself. Most liberals believe that government action is necessary to protect individual freedoms, as part of its sovereign functions , and many of them (as Adam Smith , Raymond Aron , Karl Popper or Benedetto Croce ) accept and even recommend some state intervention in the economy, particularly in the control and regulation. In contrast, the libertarian (or anarcho-capitalist ) who refuses to state any legitimacy in any field whatsoever.
Socialism
Socialism is a type of social organization based on collective ownership (or social property ) means of production , , as opposed to capitalism.
It is the purpose of various trends emerged and developed since the nineteenth century , and culminating today with different currents Marxists and anarchists , as well as social democrats. The distribution of goods and services may be based on the production of each individual (collectivism, piece work) or according to individual needs (communism, making the heap). Marxist states have a collectivist economy, while communism advocated by the anarchists.
The socialist movement is looking for a social justice , condemned the social inequalities and the exploitation of man by man , defends the social progress , and promotes the emergence of a egalitarian society , without social classes .
For their part, academics Georges Bourgin and Pierre Rimbert define socialism as "a form of company whose fundamentals are:
- Social ownership of means of production;
- Democratic management of these instruments;
- Adjust production to meet the individual and collective needs of men. "
Fascism
Originally Fascism (in Italian fascismo) is a political movement emerged in the Italian end of the First World War. On 23 March 1919 , Benito Mussolini met a number of dissidents from PSI , and begins to form a "beam sword" (fascio di combattimento). The term "beam" Mussolini meant when a movement spontaneity, in the tradition of Italian syndicalism. The term actually belonged to a vocabulary of extreme-left . In direct competition with other revolutionary organizations (including the fledgling Communist Party), the Fascii trying to retrieve a customer right . These attempts to recover reassure the Italian bourgeoisie, who, after the suppression of labor movements, considers this movement as a lesser evil .
The ideology of this movement is difficult to define: one can see a diagram of a synthesis of nationalism and unionism revolutionary , but multiple contexts and ideological movements have in fact a prelude to its creation: the renewal of the Irrational , the futurism , the anti-Semitism ... Because of its composite nature, fascism has struggled to establish a new and original doctrine "at the beginning, fascism easily distinguishable from other movements ultra- minority ' . Contemporaries themselves were skeptical vis--vis a program "catch all", which captures both themes Marxists, nationalists and reactionary .
As noted by the historian Pierre Milza , this ideological diversity requires us to think of fascism as a plurality: "There is not one, but of fascism" . This plurality is first space: "On a common ground (...) there are political movements outbreak of a new type, next of kin to each other, but at the same time have a special status on account of the past, the traditions, structures of the countries in which they develop " . It is also and above all, time. Milza thus identifies four stages of development of fascism:
- The first fascist is a spontaneous reaction of the middle class cope with various threats and contextualized: proletarianization, revolutionary movements
- The second result of a fascist alliance between fascism and the first big bourgeoisie, which implies that it also feels threatened. This alliance entails the liquidation of certain leftist currents (the squadrisme Italian, German ... SA) .
- The third represents fascism fascism government. It inherits the initial contradictions of the movement. Unlike the traditional right-wing dictatorships, fascism can not simply spend the dominance of incumbent elites. He has to satisfy certain lower social classes, who constituted its original customer: the middle class and provides the main framework of the new regime, while many social institutions (corporations) are trying to integrate the proletariat to the fascist society. These conflicting provisions can not be reconciled within the framework of a great national purpose. Also, by its own contradictions, fascism is forced into the war .
- The fourth full fascism or fascism seeks to replace the liberal bourgeois order and a new order. This alternative presupposes the establishment of a totalitarian power (the state-SS) and generalized conditioning individuals .
Considered in terms of both pluralities, Fascism is a political concept generic, which, beyond the Mussolini regime characterizes the Nazism of Hitler , the League Cuza of Codreanu, the Heimwehr Austrian, the BUF of Oswald Mosley The PPF of Jacques Doriot ... It would seem that one could speak, after 1929 , an international fascist. In 1932 , Mussolini and said in a speech in Milan: "In ten years Europe will be fascist or fascise" . Earlier, one of the chiefs of the plan, Asvero Gravelle , went to state in its journal Antieuropa: "Fascism is the gravedigger of old Europe. Here come the forces of the Fascist International " . With this in mind that Mussolini created the cowries ( Comitati d'Azione per l'Universality of Rome ) in 1933 to unite the movement claim of Italian fascism . This initiative remained a dead letter fundamentally nationalist fascism can not coexist . Only a few of expansionism by the fascist states, that fascism could prevail internationally.
At the end of the Second World War , fascist movements cease to constitute a viable political alternative. Both compromised in their crimes against humanity that "the advent of a capitalist system much more internationalized than before" mortgage their future definitely ideological. Although the "era of fascism 'is closed, these movements continue, marginally, to exist.
The power structure
The political regimes according to the legitimacy of power
To practice without opposition, political power has always endeavored to justify its legitimacy. This may be based on:
- tradition and heredity, where traditional diets, the monarchies and aristocratic systems;
- God's will, case of theocracies but also of the divine right of kings ;
- expression of the right of peoples and individuals ( popular sovereignty ) in the case of democracy ) but also by authoritarian regimes, but claiming the popular will (some fascist regimes);
- merit and quality of leadership. It is the theory induced by the plans governed by the "wise men" (for some local or tribal), of oligarchy bourgeois ( poll tax ) or technicians;
- the interests of efficiency of political action, ostensibly for the good of the people even if it is - temporarily or permanently - not thought capable of exercising power. These are schemes inspired by positivism , the technocracy ;
- the chance ( stochocratie ).
Historically, it seems that in a number of early civilizations, political power is not separate from religious authority (see for example the policy in ancient Egypt ). The confusion of political and religious power, or the submission of power politics to religion, or the close proximity of the two, called theocracy.
Other types of political regimes
The policy is first in the organization of power in society. We distinguish between several systems of decision making.
We distinguish between traditional monarchies and republics , an institutional distinction ultimately deemed irrelevant these days given the diversity of types of monarchy (of the parliamentary monarchy Scandinavian or British to theocracy Saudi) and types of republics.
The current distinctions are based more on the degree of democracy characterizing the regime. It distinguishes democratic regimes, authoritarian or totalitarian.
Political powers
Political power is composed of at least two distinct functions:
- an executive who makes decisions and, once they adopted, applied and enforced through a government ;
- a legislature (or a meeting), ensuring the representativeness of the people or at least the elite, who accepts or not the decisions of the executive and can sometimes offer itself.
In addition, there are powers not directly "political" but are participating in the political system:
- the judiciary , judging;
- the power media , is often described as the fourth power due to its perceived or actual ability to influence the public opinion.
In democratic political thought West (born in Britain and then formalized by the philosopher French Montesquieu ), currently used, at least on paper , as a model for international , government must be separated. In democracies it distinguishes between:
- the presidential system (which empowers the head of the executive);
- the parliamentary or assembly (which empowers the Legislature);
- mixed forms.
Territorial authorities
Patterns of territorial organization is another aspect of the organization of power. In this regard, we have:
- the unitary state that practices the centralization of power;
- unitary states pursuing a more or less dose of decentralization of power;
- federal states, practicing federalism , giving significant power to the territorial divisions (called state , land , region , province , etc.)..
Traditionally, States have two main types of territorial subdivisions:
- large regional entities (in the French sense) often correspond to very specific historical entities, which sometimes experienced during periods of their history of independence or autonomy (as in Europe, Britain , the Scotia , the Catalonia The Bavaria , etc.).
- municipalities and villages, historically constituting the basic unit of local life.
In between, there are sometimes political levels and / or such administrative, France, the department and townships.
Above the national context, political structures are more or less flexible "regional" (as the European Union ) and global (as the United Nations ).
Politik: The Art and Practice
On Politics
The rise to power and the struggle for power: politics
The terms of accession to power, like the power structure, determined by institutions and are a part of the political system. However, they also exceed the question of the power structure for the following reasons:
- to power also depends on the politics , that is to say, in particular, in contemporary societies, the life of political parties, hence also the question of relations between the government and opposition ;
- the question of the accession to power also exceeds that of his organization since the accession can occur through a form that was not provided by the institutions. These are all forms of violent seizure of power: the coup d'etat and revolution.
Mode to power
The different mode to power dependent on the legitimacy of regimes (see above) and the type of plan (above). On paper, the system of election based on the theoretical presupposition of democracy, has emerged in the twentieth century as the international standard system for appointing leaders. There are exceptions with particularly monarchies (Saudi Arabia, Sultanate of Brunei, etc..).
Within the democratic system that stands between:
- Direct Democracy or indirect democracy with mandatory instructions or representative (delegate);
- different implementation, through various types of electoral system.
Methods of policy
In democratic regimes, the normal method of achieving power is participation in elections.
Other non-violent forms of expression also exist ( demonstrations , strikes , Nonviolence , Civil Disobedience , Nonviolent Conflict , boycotts , media campaigns, cybermouvements , etc..).
The field of politics, however, also includes modes of political action Violent coup , rebellion , revolution. Some violent acts are regarded as terrorism by those against whom they are intended and acts of resistance by those who practice it.
Political parties
Opposing political factions have always existed in all schemes, often based on supporting a person's diet (usually a prince or a nobleman in the monarchies). From the French Revolution at least (but much earlier in England with the Tories and Whigs), has developed a model based on political parties or political movements theoretically welded by political ideas more than by the support a personality.
Multiparty political systems have spread worldwide, introducing new political ideas:
- the political change peacefully at the head of government between parties;
- the distinction between majority and opposition;
- the distinction between two main political camps: the left and right, or so caricatured conservatives and reformers, and so on.
Political movements may be involved in their work with social movements , and associations , etc.. Section 4 of the Constitution of 1958 governs the organization of political parties in France.
The political role of media
The media have always played an important role in politics, forming a relay from politics to the public. The influence of the media has led to the press call the "fourth estate". Political power has followed the developments in technology, using the press, radio (the "fireside chats" of Franklin Delano Roosevelt ), film (propaganda films of totalitarian regimes), television and Internet and direct marketing.
In France, the use of media that directly affects the public, except the press, was seen in the early twentieth century with suspicion by the Republican circles that the direct link to the head of the executive with the people fell within the Bonapartist tradition. The use of radio first (the call of June 18 of General De Gaulle ) and the television by General de Gaulle broke taboos.
Media development has led to a change in the behavior of politicians, a trend called peoplelisation the early 2000s. This is to show another image (not institutional and more intimate) of the politician and to stage his private life to create a favorable image and a local link with the potential voter. In France, we can trace its beginnings in 1970 when Valery Giscard d'Estaing put his wife on stage and became a film playing the accordion.
The exercise of power: the political
The policy of a government cover all its decisions at the political level or at the administrative level. This political "general" is subdivided into sectoral policies which are the main social policy , the economic policy , the foreign policy , etc.. A concept that can be refined (housing policy, cultural policy, agricultural policy, etc.)..
Political action takes place concretely through the issuance of rules (level political or administrative) used or controlled by an administration.
The Politician: representations
The presence of women in politics has increased slowly but steadily between 2000 and 2009. According to a report of the UN References J. CHAZOFF " a href = "http://www.encyclopedie-anarchiste.org/articles/c/collectivisme.html" class = "external text" rel = "nofollow"> Article "Collectivism" from the Anarchist Encyclopedia "on http:/ / www.encyclopedie-anarchiste.org/ , 1934 See also
Selective Bibliography
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