Minoan Civilization
History of Greece  | |
|---|---|
| Pre-Hellenic Greece | |
| Prehistory of Greece | |
| -3200 | Cycladic civilization |
| -2700 | Minoan civilization |
| -1550 | Mycenaean civilization |
| Ancient Greece | |
| -1200 | Dark Ages |
| -800 | Archaic |
| -510 | Classical period |
| -323 | Hellenistic |
| -146 | Roman Greece |
| Medieval Greece (C) | |
| 330 | Byzantine Empire |
| 1202 | Fourth Crusade |
| 1453 | Ottoman Greece |
| Modern Greece | |
| 1799 | Republic of the Seven Islands |
| 1822 | Revolutionary War |
| 1832 | Kingdom of Greece |
| 1936 | Plan of August 4 |
| 1941 | Occupation |
| 1946 | Civil War |
| 1967 | Dictatorship of the colonels |
| 1974 | Hellenic Republic |
Minoan civilization develops in Crete from 2700 to 1200 BC. AD. Drawing its name from the name of legendary King Minos , it was revealed by the English archaeologist Arthur John Evans in the early twentieth century.
Geography and Environment
Situated equidistant from Greece , the Cyclades , of Rhodes and Libya , Crete marks the southern boundary of the Aegean basin and has always been a crossroads between Europe, Asia and Africa . Rising sea levels could be explained by a general increase in the volume of water due to melting ice at the poles. If we consider that the sea level was lower than one meter Crete in Roman times from today, we can assume that many Minoan sites are now fully covered by the waters .
Another change in the configuration of the coast of the island, is the gradual rise of the entire west coast. This phenomenon is highlighted by Spratt in the 1850s, had begun in medieval times, perhaps IX , just after the conquest of the Saracens. Between Paleochora and the ancient city of Lyssos, the elevation is estimated at 8 meters. Thus, Phalassarna, the ancient Greek city had an inland port, connected to the sea through a channel cut in the rock. This channel is now well above sea level .
Crete is a mountainous island, dominated by three mountains over 2500 meters. The geological and seismic activity have created numerous caves and cavities occupied by early humans for housing or cult .
Today, about two-thirds of the total area of the island is rocky and arid areas, which would already be the case in Minoan times. If deforestation began very early in Crete, it seems that under the Minoans, we could see a primeval forest of cypress trees on the entire region west of Mount Ida , . Among the native plants that already found in Minoan times, it may be noted almond, quince, peas, chickpeas, beans, carob, celery, carrot, cabbage, asparagus and an entire category of herbs: thyme, sage, mint, oregano from Crete.
The island had no navigable river. It seems there was more water in the Bronze Age than today, probably more a consequence of deforestation that climate change .
History
Chronology
Sir Arthur Evans , excavator of Knossos , and founder of the Minoan archeology , introduced for the study of the Minoan civilization, a tripartite chronology. He established his system on study of pottery found on Crete, in comparison with Egyptian artifacts discovered on the island and trying to draw a parallel with the Egyptian chronology. Evans divided Minoan is the story of three periods, ancient Minoan, the Middle Minoan and Late Minoan, themselves divided into three subparts, and places the peak of its civilization from the Middle Minoan III and Late Minoan (c. -1700 to -1450).
A new timeline was proposed in 1958 in Hamburg by archaeologist Nikolaos Platon. This new system is based on the main stages of the life of the palace complex of Knossos. For Plato, the first palace dates back to -2000 before being destroyed around -1700. Rebuilt, it was again destroyed around -1400, may be a result of the explosion of the volcano of Santorini. This dating, now widespread , adopts a chronology and terminology somewhat different from that of Evans. According to Plato, the Neolithic stops -2600. The period from the introduction of copper in the construction of the first palaces of Knossos, Phaistos and Malia is described as pre-palatial. The proto-palatial period extends from the construction of palaces for its destruction to -1700. The neo-palatial spread their reconstruction until the final destruction of Knossos to -1400. The next period, or post-palatial Mycenaean, is the abandonment of the main palace, and ends with the conquest of the island by the Dorians.
The timing of each period is based on historical connections with ancient Egypt, which we know more precisely the chronology, through inscriptions found. Egyptian stone bowls dating from predynastic and Old Kingdom, were found in the context of the late Neolithic Knossos. Stone vases of the Old Empire were discovered in tombs at Mochlos Prepalatial. Scarabs of the Twelfth Dynasty were unearthed at Lebena in the context of the end of the Proto-palatial period. But these findings are limited unable to date them with certainty since they are no registration . On the other hand, is thought as the proto-palatial period is contemporary with the twelfth dynasty because fragments of Kamares vase style were found Kahun Egypt among waste workers established a habitat for the construction of the royal pyramids this dynasty. Kamares vase was also found to Abydos . The start of the neo-palatial period must coincide with the time of the Hyksos , as the lid of a stone vase, bearing the cartouche of Pharaoh Khyan Hyksos was discovered in the Middle Minoan III levels at Knossos. So the rest of the period Neopalatial is the New Kingdom, especially in the eighteenth dynasty: an amphora alabaster bearing the cartouche of Tuthmosis III found in a grave in the final period of palace Katsamba .
| A. Evans | N. Plato | Traditional chronology | Egyptian chronology | Helladic chronology |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Minoan | Prepalatial | |||
| MA I | 3100-2700 | Fourth Dynasty | Helladic old | |
| MA II | 2700-2200 | Dynasty V and VI | ||
| MA III | 2200-2000 | VIth to Xth Dynasty | ||
| Middle Minoan | XIth Dynasty | |||
| MM IA | 2000-1900 | Middle Helladic | ||
| MM IB | Proto-palatial | 1900-1800 | ||
| MMII | 1800-1700 | XII Dynasty | ||
| MM IIIA | Neo-palatial | 1700-1600 | Thirteenth to seventeenth dynasties | |
| MM IIIB | 1600-1550 | |||
| Late Minoan | Eighteenth Dynasty | |||
| MR IA | 1550-1520 | Late Helladic I | ||
| MR IB | 1520-1430 | Late Helladic II | ||
| MR II | Postpalatial | 1430-1400 | Eighteenth to twentieth dynasties | Late Helladic IIB |
| MR IIIA | 1400-1330 | Twenty-first Dynasty | Late Helladic IIIA | |
| MR IIIB | 1330-1200 | Late Helladic IIIB | ||
| MR III C | 1200-1100 | Helladic IIIC recent | ||
| Subminoen |
Pre-palatial Period
The introduction of copper and its use for tools and weapons, marks the end of the Neolithic in Crete . The thesis of Arthur Evans that the introduction of metals in Crete is due to emigrants who came from Egypt is now gone . Other theories lean towards the installation of settlers in Crete from North Africa or Asia Minor. But the archaeological data do not support these hypotheses, nor even the anthropological data that does not show the arrival of new populations on the island at that time . Current theory favors the fact that the entire Aegean region at that time was inhabited by a people referred to as pre-Hellenic or Aegean . Egypt seems too distant to exert a great influence at that time. Instead, it is the Anatolia which plays a convincing role in the initiation of Crete arts metals . The spread of the use of bronze in the Aegean Sea is linked to large population movements from the coasts of Asia Minor to Crete, the Cyclades and southern Greece. These regions are entering a phase of social and cultural development, marked mainly by the expansion of trade relations with Asia Minor and Cyprus. Neolithic civilization remains, however, especially in the first part of the period. Thus, one can note, firstly, changes more in terms of organization and improvement of living conditions and in terms of technology .
Thanks to its navy, Crete occupies a prominent place in the Aegean. The use of metals transactions multiplies with producing countries: the Cretans will seek copper in Cyprus, the gold in Egypt , the silver and obsidian in the Cyclades . Ports grow under the influence of this increased activity: Zakros and Palaiokastro on the east coast, the islands of Mochlos and Pseira on the north coast are becoming the main centers of trade with Asia Minor . The importance of it for Crete explains the preponderance of the eastern part of the island which is home most active . While Knossos knows yet a sub-Neolithic civilization, without metal, Malia is contained metropolis. It was then that communities of farmers and ranchers thrive in the plain of Messara. It appears that from the ancient Minoan, villages and small towns are becoming the norm and isolated farms are much rarer .
The widespread use of bronze moves the center of gravity of the island to its core, its cities are beginning to compete with those of the eastern part. In addition, new materials divert attention from the Cretans of Asia Minor. For example, the tin of Spain , of Gaul or of Cornwall arrived on the shores of Sicily and the Adriatic and some cities orient their trade to those regions. Thus the mouth of Kairatos develops . A road runs through the middle with his Crete Knossos and Phaistos as key steps.
As regards agriculture, we know from excavations that almost all known species of cereals and legumes that are grown and all agricultural products still known today as oil, olives, wine and grapes already occurred at that time .
Proto-palatial Period
To -2000, were constructed buildings big enough to deserve the name of the palace . These buildings are the main change of the Middle Bronze Age . Their foundation results in a concentration of power in some centers, driven both by external events, and as a consequence of internal social and economic development. Written sources from the peoples of East indicate that the Aegean and Asia Minor experienced an upheaval causing a reaction of Cretans . They chose it seems to come together under the rule of a chief, or even two or four, to better fight against the dangers of outside powers . The first palaces that are Knossos , Phaistos and Malia are located in the most fertile plains of the island, allowing their owners to accumulate wealth, particularly in agriculture, as evidenced by department stores for agricultural products found in these palaces . The palace became centers of radiation for 6 to 700 years, and civilization is now considered palatial .
The location of the palace is the big cities that existed during the third phase Prepalatial . Knossos controlled the rich region of north-central Crete, Phaistos dominated the lowland area of Messara , Malia and east-central to the current Ierapetra. In recent years archaeologists speak of well-defined territories or states, a new phenomenon in the Greek space .
Civilization protopalatiale period extends throughout Crete. Relations between local leaders seem peaceful and based on collaboration. But the palaces testify to the existence of a central political power and hierarchy dominated by a king . The execution of major projects such as grading of the hill at Knossos Phaistos, are indications that the Minoans had already managed a division of labor, and had a lot of workers. Slavery and drudgery already practice in the East, there was probably also in Crete . The presence of a hierarchy in the palaces is evidenced by the quantity of seals discovered at Phaistos. Finally, the development of hieroglyphic writing and the appearance of the first linear script would be in conjunction with the bureaucratic system and the need to better control entry and exit of goods .
The influence of the Minoan culture is now being felt outside of Crete. It seems that Knossos had already laid the foundations of the "Minoan thalassocracy. Ceramics Kamares was found at Milos , Lerna , Aegina and Kouphonissi. Imports of ceramic Egypt , Syria , Byblos , Ugarit demonstrate the links between Crete and those countries .
Pax Minoica seems to be on the island which is now under the authority of Knossos. One theory is that the Cretan palaces had all belonged to the same master who visited them in turn.
To -1700, a great catastrophe struck the three main palace. In all likelihood, the destruction of the palace was caused by an earthquake, which hit several countries in Asia Minor to the same period . Another theory is that there was a conflict between the Knossos palace which emerged victorious .
Period Neopalatial
The first palaces were rebuilt after the disaster of 1700. The next two centuries mark the greatest evolution of the Minoan civilization which now radiates from a dozen new palace , often smaller and sometimes simply called "villas" . The residences of local rulers gain greater independence and show a decline of central authority.
Neopalatial period is not uniform and the new palace experiencing first destruction to 1630/1620, as recent studies link it to the explosion of Santorini .
The characteristics of the new palaces are their propylaea , colonnades, staircases linking the many floors, skylights, rooms in which one or more walls are replaced by a series of doors that could open or close depending on the time of the year. Gypsum, extracted locally at Knossos Phaistos or used for coating walls .
The disaster of 1450
Around 1450, new palaces are destroyed, which marks the beginning of the decline of the Minoan civilization. For years, the end of the Minoan civilization was associated with the explosion of the volcano of Santorini , which would have led to a series of devastating earthquakes, a layer of volcanic ash and a powerful tidal surge that swept the entire coast north of Crete, destroying the Minoan fleet . This theory was put forward in 1930 by Spyridon Marinatos who attributed the destruction of the villa from Lily Amnisos to the explosion of the volcano . If this theory was taken many times, she began to be challenged then virtually abandoned since the 1980s. Archaeologists estimate that the explosion of the volcano occurred in the late seventeenth century and not 1450. Moreover, they admit that the destruction of the palace is based on three different disasters occurring at an interval of 70 to 100 years. The first, about 1620-1600, due to the explosion of Santorini, had a limited effect, the palace was immediately repaired. The second to 1520-1500, limited too, had resulted in the abandonment of some palaces and mansions (Galatas Amnisos, Vathypetros, Sitia). The third largest, had more serious consequences, and many important sites were abandoned. All palatial centers appear to have been destroyed and burned, except that of Knossos. In some villages, as Myrtos Pyrgou, only the most important houses of local governors are destroyed while the rest of the homes was intact .
In rejecting the contention of the volcanic eruption, other theories are put forward to try to explain the decline of the Minoan civilization, such as earthquakes, fires, the Mycenaean conquest and military actions inside and outside Crete. For Detorakis, causes are to be sought within the society and the Cretan economy. Thus, he said, the production of agricultural and craft reached its limits and no longer met the demand. At the same time, the conditions of trade management changed following the emergence of new factors, such as the claim of the same areas of commerce that the inhabitants of mainland Greece. On the other hand, a decrease in stock of raw materials can not be excluded. The resulting situation was the main characteristic disorder and destabilization that led to the abandonment and destruction of most sites . Tulard for the destruction of the palaces of Phaistos, Agia Triada and Tylissos could be the last episode of a fight between them at Knossos . But in 1400, the city succumbs to turn on grounds misidentified. The palace was looted and burned. The hypothesis of the earthquake is again recurrent , . Evans saw the issue in a revolt of the plebs Minoan cons militarist tendency to a monarchy . Wace meanwhile suggested the Cretan uprising against an Achaean dynast came from continent . It cites the legend of Theseus as a support for the theory of an Achaean invasion from the mainland, the Minotaur's death symbolizes the destruction of the Minoan power by its former vassals. But deciphering the clay tablets of Knossos showed that the Greek language was already the official language in Knossos and therefore the dynast, when the palace was destroyed was Achaean .
The prevailing view is that there was more of a palace at Knossos in the fourteenth century. Although researchers such as Blegen and Palmer believe that the site continued to be occupied by the Achaean kings and that it was destroyed 200 years later .
Mycenaean period or Postpalatial
The destruction of Knossos caused no rupture in civilization, but after 1400, its influence diminished and home to the Cretan-Mycenaean culture was now no longer on the island, but mainland Greece. For Tulard, Crete becomes a mere appendage of the continent .
We have not yet found the time Palace at Knossos. The headquarters of the Mycenaean king may have been transferred to some other palace devastated nearby site. The old Minoan palace was very busy again, but by individuals who temporarily cleared away and repaired parts. This was the time of the reoccupation, a term used by Evans . If no traces of Mycenaean occupation has been discovered at Knossos, however, the Mycenaean Megaron type were discovered at Aghia Triada and Tylissos. Houses built with care from the beginning of the period were discovered Postpalatial Paliokastro, Zakros, Gournia. The port of Knossos continued to exist and even had commercial relations with Cyprus . Mergers must have occurred between Cretan and Achaean, but despite this influx of new elements, the island does nothing original in the arts .
Achaean colonization is mentioned in the traditions preserved by the Mycenaean Greek mythology. Thus Agamemnon founded several towns in Crete, Pergamos, Lappa and Tegea. The Achaeans took part in the founding of Polyrrhenia. Place names such as Arcadia and Gortyn are probably Achaean origin . In the Iliad , Homer mentions, besides the presence of Knossos, Gortyn, Lyktos, Miletos and Phaistos, the fact that the island would have provided eighty ships, the largest number among the allies of Agamemnon. Which proves that the island is far from ruined . The fleet was under the command of the king of the island, Idomeneo , distant descendant of Minos. On his return to Crete, it would have in turn been driven, according to other honored with a splendid tomb. Probably we should see in him, as Minos, the personification of a new dynasty. Its advent celebrates the triumph of the Achaeans, his exile in / / Fr.org / w / index.php? Salentum title = & action = edit & RedLINK = 1 "class =" new "title =" Salento (non-existent page) "> Salento is the dispossession of the Achaean kings by the Dorian invasion .
Following the Achaean colonization and increased communications with the Peloponnese, conditions appeared favorable for the development of western Crete. There are a few of the Mycenaean settlements mentioned above, but also plenty of hamlets (Kolymbari, pens), tombs and other remnants of the Mycenaean period .
Around 1150, the great Mycenaean centers were devastated by the tribes of north-western Greece: Dorian, Locrian, Etolians, Phocidians. By 1100 Crete was hit in turn. Minoan population did not disappear completely, she mingled and was gradually absorbed by the Dorian tribes linguistically. Some sites on the island continued to remain faithful to the Minoan language. Thus, Praisos they continued to write inscriptions pre-Hellenic to the fourth and third century BC . Other groups took refuge on mountain tops to steep as Karphi , where a degenerate civilization survived. This phase is called subminoenne or proto-geometric. The shapes and decorative motifs Minoan impoverish many, survived in ceramics. The decoration eventually be limited to triangles, half circles and bands. The fibula is widely spread, which must mean a change in the mode of dress. There is also two other very important changes: the use of iron and cremation of the dead .
Culture
A palace civilization
Caves Neolithic ...
It seems that the caves, as Miamou , Eileithyia , Arkalochori , and Trapeza Platyvola in western Crete are still inhabited during the period Prepalatial. But the remains of dwellings of ancient Minoan discovered Vassiliki , near Hierapetra show a significant improvement over the primitive huts of the Neolithic period. These houses had thick walls, plastered and regularly divided into separate rooms .
... the Minoan labyrinth
Minoan civilization is characterized, first by his palace in the image of those of Knossos , Phaistos , Malia or to Zakros. From 2000 to 1700 BC. BC, a period known as the first "protopalatiale" finally sees his palace be destroyed from 1700 to 1400 BC. BC, during a second period called "Neopalatial" are built new palaces, richer.
Entries Minoan
Hieroglyphic Writing
The Minoans were the precursors of writing in the geographical area of the Aegean Sea . Shortly before the foundation of the Cretan palace to -2000, we see appear on Cretan seals combinations of signs that are surely a form of writing. This writing is ideographic in origin: it consists of ideograms, that is to say images of objects or concepts that are recognizable, lacked the beginning of any phonetic value. Later image acquired a meaning and scored phonetic sounds present in the corresponding word .
This first writing is commonly called Minoan hieroglyphic term borrowed from the Egyptian characters by Evans , who approached the pictograms Cretan hieroglyphs from pre-dynastic and proto-dynastic . Although there are similarities between the Egyptian and Cretan signs, it seems he never existed direct interrelation .
The evolution of writing this iconographic two phases of development: first of ideograms and seals Prepalatial protopalatiaux; protolinaires Graphic texts which develop in parallel during the period protopalatiaux .
Listing hieroglyph. (Axe Arkalochori)
Listing hieroglyph. (Axe Arkalochori)
Listing hieroglyph. (Axe Arkalochori)
 | Click on a thumbnail to enlarge |
Arthur Evans went to Crete in order to discover a new form of writing, and he was the first to give importance to the scripts of the Bronze Age from Crete or mainland Greece. After a year of excavations at Knossos, near a thousand tables, complete or fragmentary were found . In his book Scripta Minoa, Arthur Evans tried to unite the Minoan hieroglyphs. He counted 135 , but their total number is higher, since it is not in his catalog. Nevertheless, he managed to distinguish two phases in the evolution of these hieroglyphics and found that their use was widespread in Crete . The second is characterized by the incision and meticulous calligraphic signs. This second phase coincides with the phase of Kamares protopalatiale period, which lasted until about -1700. The writing continued to be used after that date, in ritual texts . On this point, theories that have hieroglyphics, originally derived from natural forms, to be transformed into use towards the end of the talismanic former Minoan . Seals with hieroglyphic inscriptions and still dating from the Middle Minoan were found, and even some seals have been found in Knossos destroyed buildings to -1450 . Simplified versions of these hieroglyphics, adopting a linear writing have been discovered, and on the kinds of graffiti on the walls of Knossos and Aghia Triada, from -1700. Perhaps, as in Egypt, writing was easier to use Advanced papyrus and ink, but the only entries made in ink known to date in Crete, have been made on cuts Clay Knossos (-1600) .
Evans hieroglyphics cataloged into different categories. Some are from the animal kingdom (wild cat, lion head, goat, beef, dove) are other signs of human body parts (eyes, hands, feet) or even the entire human figure. Other signs are vases, tools and other objects of daily life: plow, yoke, knife, saw, boat. It also meets the double ax, the throne, the arrow and the cross . If he fails to decipher the language, however, helped found the hieroglyphs Evans to paint a picture of the Minoan civilization . For him, the hieroglyphs are indications of a mercantile community, industrious and agricultural . It reviews the tools, some of whom he says are of Egyptian origin and used by masons, carpenters and decorators of the great palaces. One of the symbols found that the eight-stringed lyre had reached the same stage of development that he knows the classical period, nearly a thousand years before Terpander. The recurring symbol of the vessel suggests a business. The ingot illustrated by Evans, a means of payment .
Evans tried to interpret some signs as representations of Minoan dignitaries. Thus, according to him, the double ax is the emblem of the custodian of the shrine of the double ax, that is the palace of Knossos. Superintendent eyes mean or supervisor; trowel to architect the door keeper, and so on. But this vision was then regarded as premature, since we are still uncertain of the nature of the objects represented by the hieroglyphs. But even if we knew exactly what the hieroglyphs represented, it seems risky to assign a meaning so close to the object represented . Some series of hieroglyphs that appear regularly on the seals were added to names of gods , or perhaps titles of priests or dignitaries , .
The copy of the most important Cretan hieroglyphic inscription is the Phaistos disk , discovered in 1903 in a deposition in the flats north-east of the palace. A shelf in Linear A and ceramics from the beginning of the period Neopalatial were discovered along the disk. Both surfaces of the disc are covered with hieroglyphs arranged in a spiral, and printed in the clay while it was still wet. The signs are forming groups, separated by vertical lines, each of these groups to represent a word. We can distinguish forty-five different types of signs, some of which can be identified with the hieroglyphs protopalatiale period . Some series of hieroglyphics return like chorus, suggesting a religious hymn.
Evans hypothesized that the disk was not Cretan, but it was imported from south-west Asia. But the discovery in the cave of Arkalochori a double ax inscribed signs resembling those of the disk, and an inscription on a gold ring Mavro Spilio with a spiral leading to the conviction that the Phaistos disc is original Cretan Cretan .
It's iconographic system that comes after some modifications, first the Linear A , and subsequently the Linear B .
Linear A
It is the transformation and simplification of the writing that comes from writing ideogrammatic period Neopalatial: the Linear A, as he was called by Arthur Evans . Evans thought at first that the writing was transformed into a -1800, but this vision is now excluded by the discovery of transitional symbols . Graphic elements will systematize making writing more fluid. But the shift from writing to the other became progressively and both systems were in place alongside a time .
This writing is called linear because it is composed of signs, which although derived ideograms are no longer recognizable as representations of objects, but consist of abstract formations . The Linear A documents are limited, although more than for the linear B. The documents found so far are inscriptions on tablets of clay offerings and other religious objects. The texts in Linear A from the palace of Agia Triada are the most numerous: 150 small clay tablets which are listed transactions and storage . Similar texts have been found at Knossos , Malia , Phaistos , Tylissos , Palaikastro , Arkhan and Zakros . The texts included certificates, which indicate likely locations and characters. The numbering system was different from that of hieroglyphic writing .
Approximately 100 symbols were widely used in linear A. Among these, twelve were ideograms, appearing separately in lists before the numbers.
The Linear A writing system showed that local varieties had common elements, however. A number of entries was of a magical and religious. They were engraved or written on ritual utensils, jars, tables of offerings, stone spoons, glasses and cups from all over Crete. Indeed, it is believed that the -1600 to Linear A is used all over the island . But most texts of that time were written on placards in clay, shaped rectangular tablets .
Although it is certain that the language of these tablets is the Minoan, as she has not yet been deciphered, many recognize the elements of a language Semitic , Luwian or Indo-European . The researchers, applying phonetic values of which are known to be valid for the Linear B, have produced a variety of interpretations of texts written in Linear A . A decimal number system has been identified : vertical lines for the units of dots or horizontal lines for dozens of small circles for hundreds and circles rays for thousands. The direction of writing was from left to right . Short entries in this writing are found on the plaster of Knossos and Aghia Triada, on many seal impressions and on pithoi from diverse backgrounds. The inscriptions on the pithoi usually include three or four signs and therefore are trisyllabic or tetrasyllabic, and probably mean the names of owners or the manufacturer of pithos, without excluding the names of gods, the content or place names .
The major difficulty for the reading of Linear A lies in the fact that very few texts have been preserved. And thousands of documents that have survived are only fragmentary, making it difficult to apply with some success the decryption method used for the system Linear B , with which it has similarities but also differences . Sites that have a large number of tablets are sites that have burned about 1450, when fire baked clay tablets and thus their conservation. For other sites, the discovery of documents in Linear A is more random.
Trade expansion Minoan during the second period had resulted in the palatial spread of Minoan writing on the islands and mainland Greece. It is known samples from Milos , Kea , Kythera , Naxos and Santorini .
Linear B
The Minoan religion
Funeral Rites
Frescoes and arts
The murals have a long history in Crete. The walls of houses in the Middle Minoan Crete and are covered with painted red or brown. In the remains of the first palaces of Knossos and Phaistos, there is some evidence to suggest that the walls were decorated with ornamental patterns on plaster. But it was not until the period of the second palaces, to -1700, the murals certainly become very common, especially after -1550.
About the art, there is debate as to whether the Minoan frescoes uses the technique of true art, or buon fresco of the Renaissance, which requires that most of the colors are earth pigments suspended in water only , and are laid on a lime plaster is still wet. The study of color penetration suggests that this technique was sometimes used. Also found in particular for details of the frescoes, the technique of fresco secco technique of applying color non-resistant lime over an underlay.
The base of the frescoes is a lime plaster. The main colors used are black (carbonaceous shale), white ( calcium hydroxide ), red ( hematite ), yellow ( tan ), blue (copper silicate), green (blue and yellow mixed). Occasionally, the scenes are painted very slightly raised in order to create a dimensional effect.
Most of the frescoes that have survived are from Knossos or Thera. Some come from Hagia Triada , Tylissos or Amnissos. Very few fragments have reached us from Phaistos and Malia.
The frescoes that have survived are all fragmentary and incomplete, often because they adorned the walls collapsed. Many have also been discolored by the fire. Many have been restored, with more or less accurately, and many works presented are based more on the vision of restaurateur of the artist's original.
The vast majority of the frescoes were made more or less between 1550 and 1450. They are the first performances of naturalistic style in Europe while including two specific Cretan: the reproduction of natural forms in a impressionist manner and ability to occupy all available space. Most of the time, the frescoes are delineated below and above by patterns. The subjects described can be separated into two categories: nature scenes and scenes depicting life in the palace. The latter describe processions, court ceremonies and religious festivals. Found among these frescoes, vases bearing the priest-king. The fresco of the priest-king is highly fragmented, the head is completely missing, so much of Higgins thinks that the different fragments could originate from three different characters. The scenes of acrobats, men or women, jumping over a bull, are popular.
Ceramics
Neolithic
Ceramics from Neolithic I to Knossos , was sufficiently advanced so as regards manufacturing techniques as decoration (incised and dotted). It was handmade, not tour , and cooked on open fires . The most common form is a simple open bowl . Early Neolithic vases are rude and unadorned, the Middle Neolithic they are polished and decorated with incised motifs, usually chevrons, stripes, zigzags and dots, filled with white paste, resulting in uneven cooking. The clay used can vary from red to black and was painted by, despite some polishing, made by rubbing the surface of the vase after cooking . The forms were quite flared walls or spherical-shaped keel and a flat bottom. Early Neolithic II, the etched patterns become more frequent straight or broken lines, chevrons, triangles and diamonds.
New forms appear to Middle Neolithic Knossos and Katsambas, like ladles and a strange vessel with two handles and rectangular opening (maybe a stove?). The decoration of these new forms was mostly burned, but there are also United pottery and polished. In Neolithic there are two types of decoration on pottery:
- entriptos style (polished in Greek)
- stolidotos style (pleated)
The decoration was done point by point by folds, polishing and brushing. The etched patterns are scarce. The most common forms are flared bowls, containers shaped like a cone or cup, the spherical pyxis and pots with a long neck.
Four sets of ceramic bearing the names of sites where they were discovered, were listed.
- spherical sections of Knossos and Chania Kounacospilio
- coarse pottery or engraved folded Mangasas Sitia
- pottery with a polished surface of Trapeza Lassithiou
- pottery painted in red Phaistos
The last two groups still exist in the following period.
Ceramics Prepalatial
At the time Prepalatial, ceramics is the main area where there has been a technological evolution. New ceramic styles appear in Minoan I:
- the style of Pyrgos , with pottery or black smoke, ash-colored, polished and linear forms, extending the tradition Neolithic , . The main forms were the big glasses double cones, cups, pottery double or triple, pottery ball suspended with lid, small pitchers and glasses taper. Instead of a painted backdrop, there is a "polishing reasons" : with this technique by rubbing parts of the surface with the polishing tool, we obtain various ornamental motifs such as bands, semicircles , zigzags and more.
- With the style of Agios Onouphrios , painted pottery appears Minoan I pottery decorated with designs and new shapes. The decoration had vertical to the base of the vessel on a background of dark brown or reddish brown coating on colored polish. The main forms were ewers, jars, vases and the pyxides compartmentalized, simple or complex.
- Levinas's style, unlike the preceding with a decoration on a white surface brown or light brown and linear patterns. Most of the ceramics come from graves. In all styles, we find pottery plastics imitating the shape of various animals, birds, objects, etc..
These styles are developed and improved during the Early Minoan II . But these are new styles that dominate:
- Style Koumasa , which was an evolution of style Agios Onouphrios with more complex shapes and decorative patterns and eccentric more organized systems of lines, lines, triangles, inverted, diamonds, patterns like butterflies ...
- The style of fine pottery greylag engraved with geometrical patterns (triangles, half circles) on a polished surface.
At the end of the Early Minoan II, the most typical style was that of Vassiliki , one of the most impressive style of Minoan pottery as much art as decorative result. The pottery forms are bold: ewers mouth shaped beak, long mouth teapots, creamers, cups semi-cylindrical. Their surface was covered with a thick coating, which under the oxidizing effect of uneven cooking fire, showed patches of different shapes . At the end of this period, we also use the color white, but this is necessary especially during the next phase.
In ancient Minoan III and Middle Minoan I, new styles inspired by older styles appear.
The most typical style of that era was the Lefkosa (white), an evolution of style Vassiliki. The surface is black polished pottery, decorative designs a tan white: curved lines, garlands, octopus, rosettes, spirals. Traditional forms are ewers, teapots and cups. Initially, the white style was considered only for eastern Crete, but it has been demonstrated that there were also other regions. At the end of this period is the early style multicolored, which predicts the future style of Kamares. The reasons, though still single, no longer exclusively straight: the spiral, which would later become the main theme of Minoan decoration is now introduced into the repertory of painted motifs . One theory even closer to the uncertain use of the spiral in Crete influence of Bandkeramik''''regions of the Danube. It seems more likely that the spiral decoration was due to Eastern influence, particularly the techniques of jewelry Eastern Europe, where the decorative use of the spiral form of gold wire wound appears very ancient times . Appears a third color: red or orange. The main forms were the teapots and goblets. Appears at the same time the style Trachotos (rough, rough), having a surface reminiscent of some shellfish.
It was then that the pottery wheel and kiln spread .
Ceramics protopalatiale
Style asperities
The construction of the first palaces went together with an advance in ceramics. To -1900, a great revolution took place in ceramic technology: the use of fast lap, which allowed to produce fine pottery and finely finished, which replaced those made by hand. The small clay pottery is so pure, the reasons more complex and dynamic . The beginning of the period (-2000 to -1850) is dominated by the style "to rough" or "slip" , . This style is characterized by outgrowths decorative applied to the surface of the vessel when the clay was still wet, this creating a three dimensional effect . This technique is often combined with painted polychrome decoration . This popular style in the south of Crete and the main center of production was apparently there Phaistos.
Style Kamares
But the period protopalatiale is the pinnacle of style polychrome Kamares.
The evolution of pottery of Kamares is divided into four phases from 2000 to 1600 BC. BC, approximately one in every century.
- Prkamarenne ceramics, which belongs to the late Prepalatial
- Ceramics kamarenne early (MMIb, MMIII)
- The conventional ceramic kamarenne (MMIIb, MMIIIa)
- Postkamarenne ceramics, dating from the beginning of the period Neopalatial
The name is derived from the Kamares cave on Mount Ida, near the present village of the same name, where they discovered the first vessels of this style . The vases from the cave of Kamares , which probably contained fluids and food, offerings to the deity of the cave. These vases come from Phaistos, where many style vases were discovered during excavations conducted by Doro Levi . Larger quantities of pottery from kamarenne Phaistos and Knossos, where most have been discovered. It has also been found in sanctuaries (cave of Mount Dicti, cave of Ida), ports ( Kommos , Poros ) and in cemeteries. The pottery of Knossos and Phaistos are exported all over Crete as well as outside. Other workshops, smaller operating at Malia , Gournia and Vassiliki. The climax of this style is observed around 1800 - 1700. Around 1700 -1650, ceramic production was stabilized, then began to decline polychromy, and naturalistic elements were added, announcing new styles of the period Neopalatial.
Vassilakis Kamares style qualifies as among the most decorative styles in the world history of painting on ceramics. Its main features are the polychrome, plant or animal themes, themes Decorative complex. The surface of the pottery is covered with a gloss, dark or black, which is the medium of decoration. This combines the white and ocher several shades of red, which can vary from red cherries in India . More rarely there are purple, orange, yellow, brown and blue. The ornaments are curved lines, wavy, alternating entangled and flexible, which creates a result polychrome. There are forms in low relief or relief of plants and animals, painted in several colors. The arrangement of shapes is done by twisting by a fluid motion or directed, by alternating in direction. The number of decorative motifs on pottery contained kamarennes is considerable .
The most popular forms of ceramics are kamarennes cuts in many variants: without a handle, a handle with handles vertically striated, spherical, with straight sides, keel-shaped, with wavy, etc.. Other forms are frequently flared glasses, cups, bowls, basins, cups fruit. Among the pottery closed, the most popular are the many variants of ewers, cups deep spherical body, small jars, rhytons, amphorae, bowls, colanders, bottles, pottery and animal-shaped .
Kamares Style
Ceramics Neopalatial
Minoan ceramics reached a new climax in the era of the new palace. A rapid development of ceramic styles is sequenced during this period. At the beginning of the period, the styles of the period protopalatiale survive but lose their liveliness. Kamares style disappears, the technique still bright against dark, with the dominance of white or red on black. The usual reasons are that the spirals in white headbands and dotted lines, are sometimes combined with relief decoration. The shapes of vases lengthen, pithoi are decorated with strings and corrugated round medallions embossed or printed. Besides the ceramic forms adopted in the past, new forms are created, the most characteristic being the pitcher or amphora saddle collar, with a real opening, and one closed and two small loops .
L'utilisation de la couleur blanche se limite de plus en plus des motifs secondaires, pour tre remplace plus tard par le fonc sur clair, avec des dessins foncs sur jaune clair. La couleur de la peinture varie du brun au rouge fonc, selon la temprature de la cuisson. On continue utiliser les spirales, mais dans des rles mineurs et confines sur des parties secondaires du vase.
Style pliss (ou carapace de tortue)
C'est le premier style de cramique apparut cette priode. La surface fortement polie des poteries est dcore de motifs onduls, qui rappellent les plis d'une carapace de tortue . Les formes les plus frquentes dans ce nouveau style sont les coupes, les amphores, les poteries embouchure excentre, les skyphos et les aiguires. Alors que sur les petites poteries, la dcoration occupe la plus grande partie des parois, celle-ci n'apparat que sur des bandes horizontales sur les plus grandes poteries .
Marine Style
The main reasons are the Argonauts, newts, octopus, nautilus, cuttlefish, starfish, algae, corals and sponges. Often, one or two of these elements are represented by large, surrounded by other smaller items. Researchers have identified subgroups of pottery which they attribute to specific painters or workshops of pottery as the "master of marine style", the "painter of the octopus" and the workshop octopus " Style and abstract geometric This style uses elements of religion, geometric shapes, objects of imitation stone or metal and other reasons. For some pottery, the classification is not easy given the abundance of many elements that belong to other styles. The alternative style is a mixed style, since it uses the decorative motifs of other styles. The decoration consists of a strict alternation of isolated elements on the bottom of the pottery. The themes are the heart, the sea anemone, ornamental rock irregular bilobed shields, double axes, sacred knot, heads and other beef. The form of pottery is the most popular cut hemispherical curved outer edge. This style has a more systematic and announced stiffness and side stereotyped styles of the following period. During the post palatial, ceramics and painting on ceramics have many elements Helladic. A tendency toward austerity leads to a consolidation of marine and floral elements, which makes some initial reasons difficult to recognize. Forms the largest are the amphora with three handles, the alabastra shaped bread, skyphos horizontal handle. Three phases in the ceramic post-palatial : In the first and second phase, new forms are emerging, some of which are regarded as having a provenance Mycenaean amphorae as false mouth, the craters , amphorae jars-shaped pear, rhytons , gourds spherical the kylix , the skyphos. The decorative motifs are stereotyped, abstract, invariably repeated and drawn into zones. For the most common reasons we find octopuses and birds, sigmoid, diamonds, wavy lines or broken, flowers, concentric arcs, spirals. There are sometimes representations of scenes. The use of seals in Crete is probably in Babylon or Egypt , for their convenience in identifying or securing documents, and also served as amulets . But the use of utility seals evolved into an art of cutting stone. The seal, representing basically a sign, led to what can be considered a form of writing. Among the goods found in Minoan tombs, often include seals, which shows the idea of personal identification attached to such seals . The first seals are well past the first palace, dating from the mid third millennium BC. AD , during the second phase of Prepalatial. They are made of soft materials like bone, the ivory , the serpentine or soapstone imported from Syria or Egypt, are tall and have almost all been found in tombs from the plain of Mesara. The usual forms are rings, seals, stamps, seals, buttons, cones, prisms, cylinders and more rarely. Sometimes they have the shape of living creatures such as monkeys, lions, bulls and birds. The flat surface can be incised with lines, crosses, stars or patterns in S or spiral, but with both representations of animals or humans. Hieroglyphic symbols found on the seals at the end of Prepalatial and later seem to prove that a form of writing was already known . The art of lapidary develops the Proto-palatial period, and advanced techniques can carve harder materials and semi-precious stones like carnelian , the agate , the rock crystal , the jade , the chalcedony or hematite. On very small stones, engravers carve tiny forms . The characteristic forms of this period are the prism, the disc, the seal-stamp-shaped pear with a small handful. The grounds include hieroglyphics, drawings composed of lines or circles, and also figurative drawings. Seals found at Phaistos show similarities with the patterns of ceramics from Kamares. There are large varieties of flowers, animals, insects and occasionally human figures, thus opening the way to the naturalistic style of the period following . The seals are experiencing a great boom during the period Neopalatial. The most common forms are then in almond and lens. The subjects are inspired by nature: shellfish, fish, birds, branches, bulls, lions devouring bulls, ibex. Some seals show a religious character, as the celebration of rites, bullfights and buildings or sacred objects such as vases libation. Other seals depict demonic beings such as engineering Egyptian Taweret , griffins, sphinxes and the Minotaur. On seals Gournia appear the oldest representations of the battle tank fast, two-wheeled horse-drawn, and probably imported from Egypt . The art of seal declines Postpalatial period. He loses his power of invention and then confined to the representation of traditional designs. This decline is gradual, and the beginning of the period are still seals in semiprecious stones, as with the previous period of lions attacking bulls, ibex ritual scenes. But the performances characteristic of this period are water birds and flowers of papyrus. The incisions are less well cared for prior periods, the reasons have less life, members are detached from the body, the angular rigidity of attitudes is reminiscent of the visual art of the same period . Statues are created in Crete from the Neolithic period, in various materials: clay, marble, soapstone, slate and shells. Clay statuettes were more naturalistic than stone. The statuettes were certainly a religious use and smaller ones were used as amulets worn around the neck. Early Neolithic II, the statuettes are numerous and generally represent female figures whose body parts on fertility are highlighted. It's still the case in later Neolithic statuettes, including one of the finest examples is the terra-cotta figurine of the goddess found sitting in the region of Ierapetra . The statues are made between Prepalatial terra cotta, soft stone (marble or soapstone) and ivory. The stone statuettes resemble Cycladic figurines , they are contemporary. Many are carved statuettes and pottery produced during this period. Other statues mimic the shape of animals or birds, and in the mountain sanctuaries, one begins to make offerings of terracotta statuettes representing human forms. The miniature clay flourish in Crete in Middle Minoan I and II. It produces terracotta figurines in human form or animal form, manufactured in large quantities and used as religious offerings in sanctuaries. The male figures, usually painted red, wearing a dagger at the waist and belt typical. The female figurines wear the suit worked very Minoan and are sometimes painted in white or polychrome decorations present. Among the statuettes of animals, there are sheep, cattle and oxen heads. Other sculptural works in clay are replicas of shrines, altars, boats, thrones, stools . The statuettes are only Postpalatial clay. She now represents the goddess with raised arms, sometimes adoring, while others include various animals or objects . Crete was producing copper in Asteroussia (southern Messara ), and perhaps also Chrysoskamino near the coast east of Pachyammos. But surely we should also import in Cyprus and Asia Minor. Copper was first used only for making small almost triangular daggers, but later it was mixed with zinc imported from Asia Minor. The resulting bronze was used to make daggers more elongated, often reinforced with a midrib. For the manufacture of daggers were also used, although rarely, silver imported from the Cyclades or Cilicia . During the second phase of the period Prepalatial, there is a considerable improvement in the metalworking, including bronze, but silver and lead. Bronze daggers, and sometimes money, are better made, longer and take different forms: with no back, using nails to attach the loops . In the last part of the period Prepalatial, techniques soured further and new forms were invented. The bronze knives then became longer and stronger. New tools for everyday use were also made in bronze double-axes, knives to carve, saw, pliers. At the same time, also a goldsmith experienced a boom. Large colletion of jewelry were found in the tombs of Mochlos , south of Crete and Archanes in which they were deposited as offerings to the dead. The Minoans were already familiar with the technique of hammering, cutting and rejected . Precious metal objects are classified into various categories: tiaras, rings, beads necklaces, brooches, bracelets, earrings, pendants and brooches. The beads of gold and silver are associated in the manufacture of jewelry and other beads precious materials like ivory, pottery and precious stones in colorful compositions. These objects benefit from the use of new more advanced techniques such as molding, the beads and the watermark . During the period Neopalatial, many bronze figures of worshipers are manufactured and placed in sanctuaries. In the palaces and houses was found a few metal objects: household items (Hydra, jars, basins for washing hands, dishes, pots, pots ...). A Tylissos , huge pots up to 52 kg were found. Bronze is also used for making weapons. Metallurgical production is coded from the period potspalatiale. The angular shapes and contours are less dynamic. It mainly produces bronze weapons: swords, daggers, knives and spearheads, resembling Mycenaean weapons that are contemporary. Toilet utensils are made of bronze mirrors, razors and hair clips. Pottery metal are rare. The period of jewelry are gold, glass or stone and are essentially rings, beads and necklaces. The gold rings to seal the beginning of this period include religious scenes . Reflecting Gournia or Malia , cities have been unearthed. Instead, paved streets, and houses a modest two-room and have been highlighted. They seem to show an urban concern. Small craft centers and villas such as those of Gortyn , Tylissos or Vathypetro have been highlighted in the southern country. Despite a highly urban population, villages (Komai) are numerous. Farmers were using plows made of wood to work the ground, offering a wide variety of agricultural crops (wheat, olives, vetches, figs, etc.). Domestic animals (cattle, sheep) provided meat and milk. Vases made the turn are produced and used amphorae reserve or container transport. Stone vases are the ones marked by the decorative and the care that they are worn. The Minoan glow in the detailed work especially in the engraved gems and jewelry. The sculptures are limited by cons, to small statuettes of ivory, bronze or clay. Minoan civilization owes much to the archaeologist Arthur John Evans , who leaned on this little known civilization in the 1900s. At the age of discovery "extraordinary", he meant by this, the discovery of Troy (1869) and Mycenae by Heinrich Schliemann , Arthur Evans found himself in new discoverer of the ancient Greeks. He also claimed to have found "their" civilization. His strongest brand has been left to Knossos. Thus, most vestiges of the old palace, are now mostly reconstructions made from the little paint left behind by the Minoans. Evans then made a wide anastylosis on the very site of Knossos. For example, the double horns of limestone near the South entrance of the estate, are the work of Arthur Evans. Most of the frescoes, like the so-called "Prince of lily flower", are reconstructions made at random from Evans. Today we know that this prince is actually composed of at least three characters: a princess, a priest and an unidentified man. C. Iliakis, illustrator and Greek archaeologist, is itself influenced by the reconstructions undertaken by Evans. Based on some frescoes, Evans got busy building up as the sun sinks, or the Throne Room. The pillars, so representative of the Minoans were, for the most part restored to wrong places. Evans has largely changed or forged our vision of the Minoans. Today, recent archaeological discoveries, including the current one, do we know more about the palaces like Knossos. Yet some things, like the pillars mentioned above, are well represented by the Minoan frescoes. Evans had a vision, therefore, quite close to historical reality. Alternative Style
The main workshops of the day were at Knossos , Phaistos , and Kydonia. The style spread throughout the southern Aegean, where he enjoyed a certain height . Ceramics post-palatial
Style of the palace
This is evident in the palatial style, style characterized by Cretan-Mycenaean Vassilakis. The fact that this style appeared at Knossos just after the destruction of the palace, and it includes elements Helladic argues that it has a direct connection with the mainland. The style of the palace then spread throughout Crete .
In the third phase, there are two styles of painting on ceramics: the sober and dense style. The simple style is characterized by limited use of linear elements, placed on a background free. The vases are painted in a rather rudimentary. The style uses dense compositions featuring many designs and decorative motifs. The reasons are heavy, compact and associated with numerous fine lines and triangles drawn very tightly. During this period subminoenne, ceramics lost part of its quality. Some samples are from Karfi value. But most are not well cooked and flakes easily basis . The Art of Stone
Glyptics
Statues
Metallurgy and silverware
For the production of gold tiaras, hairpins, necklaces, chains and statues of animals were imported gold mines Egyptian Sinai, the Arabian desert between the Nile and Red Sea, and Asia minor. Jewels, worn and by men and women, no longer limited to simple clay beads as found in the Neolithic, but are composed of semi-precious stones .
Precious metals, especially gold are used for the manufacture of small masterpieces and jewelry. In contrast, silver utensils, such as jewelry are rare . Economy
Urban centers organized
A diversified agriculture
The craft developed
Colonial Minoan
The vision of Arthur Evans
See also
Related articles
Bibliography
External Links
Notes
References
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