A latrine.

Multi-family latrines in Haiti: Building Blocks summary, but the result in terms of sanitation is already sufficient.

A pit latrine in Poland.

A toilet is a place designed in a way a human being can relieve them of their bodily waste, especially the defecation (French-speaking Canadians tend to use the term outhouse ). Compared to a toilet , a toilet has a lesser technology. The toilet is the mode of sanitation basic most used worldwide and the consequences on public health, urban infrastructure and human dignity are so important that we comes to talk of "health crisis" . Despite the initiatives following the Millennium Development Goals (to halve the proportion of people without basic sanitation by 2015 ), the coverage only to follow the growth of world population.

The health crisis may be of such importance that it eventually affects the policies of a country, so Gandhi had said that "Sanitation is more important than independence. "

Terminology

If the word has aged in developed countries where people speak more fluently in toilets , it is commonly used in developing countries and occasionally in rural areas of developed countries. The plural form ("latrine") is more often used in France but the singular form ("latrine"), seen as obsolete , is used preferably in other Francophone countries, especially Africa and in Haiti.

The distinction between toilets and latrines is not always obvious. If a simple hole in the ground surrounded by sheets is clearly a latrine, and if a firm to flush sewer connected is clearly a toilet , some guys like a water seal latrine connected to a septic tank may be difficult to classify. The designation depends primarily on the context and the type of excreta disposal available in the neighborhood. Another way to classify is to consider that a latrine is usually located outside the house , and the toilet inside.

The neologism "latrine" is sometimes used in development to designate a program including the development of latrines. The latrine is part of the process of consolidation of base which includes excreta disposal, disposal of rainwater and wastewater , and disposal of waste solids.

There are also Canadianism " outhouse ".

Usefulness

A latrine has two main functions:

1. ensure the health of its users by allowing excreta in a hygienic manner;
2. protect the environment by containing germ pathogens excreted.

The different types of latrines provide more or less these two roles. Thus, a poorly maintained latrine fill it's role sanitary protection, the type of soil and proximity to the water table will complicate environmental risks.

However, a latrine also has other functions from the perspective of the user, and these functions are usually more important in the choice of acquiring a latrine or improving the existing system, although more than health reasons . A latrine can have privacy, a crucial point especially for women (in some cultures, they should not be seen going to their needs); the Open defecation is also associated with a lower status, it is a symptom of poverty , while the use of a latrine can keep or regain some dignity. A toilet is also an element of culture : do not have can be a source of shame when we receive visitors, possess can be a source of prestige. Similarly, having a type of latrine "improved" or a toilet can also give a certain social status.

History

Latrines at Krak des Chevaliers in Syria

Antiquity

The older toilets that is known back to the civilization of the Indus Valley , considered the first to have developed an urban planning from 2600 BC. AD : the toilet was flushed into the sewers found on the sites of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa . Not until the ^sixteenth century before finding such a system in Europe.

Elements of a latrine

A latrine is composed of several elements:

• A pit, in the case of a dry latrine, or a system of excreta disposal, the pit may be enhanced or not, concrete or masonry.
• A slab of concrete or wood , drilled a hole and possibly covered with a seat. When people crouch, slots are provided for putting your feet and not dirty.
• A superstructure, which in its simplest form consists of sticks and tarps, but can also take the shape of a house made of wood or bricks. The superstructure is covered with a roof and may include various elements such as a door, a vent pipe leading to the pit, sometimes a water outdoors.

In addition to these attributes, a latrine will be additional items depending on its type (see below): hydraulic trap , sometimes a flush when possible, a location adjacent shower and drainage systems excreta.

Different types

Latrines can be broadly classified according to three criteria:

• On the one hand, if the deposit of excreta is on site or if excreta are discharged;
• On the other hand, if the tank is dry or wet, so if water is added to excreta or not.
• Or if they are integrated into the building or not.

An additional factor is involved, which is the number of people using the latrine. This is called public latrine for an Unrestricted and fees may apply, and private or family latrine when the toilet is for a single home.

Dry Latrines

A pit latrine rudimentary pit Raised, door and roof damage, ventilation ineffective ... but even such a simple model already allows to improve the hygiene of the place.

A simple hole dug into the ground and covered after defecation is not generally considered a "latrine". Let the pit reaches a reasonable depth of around fifty centimeters to one meter, so that the name is worth.

A pit latrine is the type most rudimentary but also probably the most widespread. It is a pit in the ground, often reinforced in its upper part to avoid the collapse of latrine, the pit is covered with branches and earth for simple models, or a slab concrete with a hole if resources permit. If this is the type of latrine most simple, it already allows a good control of excreta-related diseases, for some routine maintenance is performed. The odors and flies remain problematic.

The latrine Ventilated improved pit more often called VIP is an enhancement of the above type, developed in southern Africa. It is to add a breakdown of the pit to the outside (usually in the form of a pipe PVC diameter 100 mm), topped by a grid insect. This toilet allows much better control of odors and flies, but requires construction of better and more maintenance.

The borehole latrines are similar to simple pit latrines, but instead of a pit about one meter in diameter, have a narrow pit, drilled mechanically. This approach has many drawbacks: risk of collapsing walls, smells more present as feces can remain attached to the walls, filling even faster if the hole is deep, easier contamination of groundwater. This type is used in cases of humanitarian emergency because it is relatively quick to dig.

The bucket latrines are simply defecate in a bucket , covered when not in use to avoid unpleasant odors. The bucket is then emptied periodically in a suitable location. Despite major health risks imposed on users as bouncers, there are still such latrines, whether for traditional reasons (as in India where the caste of untouchables traditional role is to empty the latrines) or for reasons of lack of space, especially in slums.

Finally, there are different types of ecological latrines, where the goal is to let the matter rest for some time, sometimes separating the urine and / or by adding other materials ( ash , organic wastes) to promote the composting process. It is then possible to reuse the compost , thus avoiding to pollute the environment.

Wet latrines

In some urban areas bidonvillises near a river or Wed it is common to see "latrine" is simply an assemblage of wood covered with tarpaulins and fabrics overlooking the water, where people defecate. This poses health risks for people living downstream, environmentally friendly animal living in water, and security for users of the most vulnerable (children, elderly) who may fall. This system is sometimes the only feasible in some poor communities.

The water seal latrine is the simplest type of pit latrine humid compared to a pit latrine, it is simply to add a trap to the slab. The trap can stop the bad smells and insects and therefore provides better hygienic conditions. Just two to three liters of water to remove the materials. This type of latrine is suitable for places where people use water for anal cleansing, bulky items that can not pass, it must also have an adequate supply of water, hard to find in arid, rural and underserved areas.

By adding a drain in such a latrine, it is possible to create different variations. For example, it is possible to place the pit away from the superstructure and to optimize the use of space and can also have two pools, one used while the other is closed so that pathogens are absent and that the vehicle can be done without mechanical means. It is also possible to connect the toilet to a septic tank , if this makes the operation more convenient for the user, it does not remove the problems of drainage and adds the problem of disposing of the liquid fraction; septic tanks are mainly used in rural areas.

It also can connect such a latrine to a network of sewer if it exists, or sewer or simplified small diameter if appropriate. This is an expensive and generally reserved for urban complexes planned for a long time, it touches on the limit to a toilet connected to sewerage complex.

Finally, one can mention the "Aqua-privy," in which the pit is completely sealed and filled with water, a pipe used to evacuate the overflow from the side, while the solids accumulate at the bottom. In the field, this system was a disaster : either blocked and overflowing or lacking water and thus foul, it required a large financial investment in the construction.

Latrines suspended

Castles in or certain multi-storey buildings , latrines are installed in a tiny room floor, forming a protuberance on the faade that can sometimes be confused with a defense ( battlements ). And feces are evacuated directly outside and fall below or are recovered in septic ventilated.

For example, Chateau de Coucy , XIII ^century, latrines were provided for each floor of the dungeon and turns to avoid unpleasant smells empestrent castles still poorly equipped, starting with the Palace of Versailles , and that until in recent times, since in the nineteenth ^century, the time of King Louis XVIII , there was still complaining of the corridors of the Chateau de Saint-Cloud .

Public latrines

Remains of a public latrine after 3 months of lack of maintenance (suburban district of Cap-Haitien , Haiti ).

Public latrines are typically two possible aspects: the first is the alignment of a series of individual cabins grouped in a single location, type common in schools where a large number of users is likely to use the latrine at the same time. The other type is to have a single room divided into two parts (male and female), each with more seats or locations without their use is necessarily very intimate. This type is most commonly seen near the markets.

The installation of a public latrine is generally motivated for economic reasons (used by many people as possible with minimal investment) and save space: in densely populated areas, installation of a latrine per family s proves problematic quickly. But very often, public latrines are suffering from a management problem: for they are used, there must be a regular cleaning is done by any organization. Many experiments go to prove that local organizations are often more efficient than public services for this .

In developing countries, it is very common to see public latrines unusable due to lack of maintenance. Successful initiatives in this area are rare and can include community latrines Sulabh in India , a result of public-private cooperation and investment of its founder Bindeshwar Pathak , serving twelve million customers daily.

Filling and emptying of septic

The time it takes to fill a pit depends on several factors: the volume of the tank and the filling speed, it depends on the number of people using the latrine, and the rate of accumulation of feces. According to many experiments , this rate varies between 40 liters per person per year for a wet pit if water is used for anal cleaning, 60 liters and 90 liters per person per year for a dry latrine when larger objects are used for anal cleaning. In the case of a wet ditch, infiltration into the soil of the wet explains this difference. We assume that a latrine is full when the level rises 50 cm above the top of the pit.

Emptying of a grave is a recurring problem in developing countries and especially in slums. Public services are either absent or do not have the technical means to accomplish this mission. Private companies make little profit in these areas, easily overlooked. There are so many full and unusable latrines.

How "classic" empty pit is to use a truck equipped with special high volume of pump priming, to drain several graves in a row, then take the excreta to a specially designed deposition. But such equipment requires maintenance and maintenance difficult, and a large investment base. Moreover, it does not provide access to more remote or dense as the inside slums. On the other side of the scale, there are many workers in the informal private sector that drain the pits with shovels and buckets, overnight, in unsanitary conditions. A major problem is to know where to file the materials, which are sometimes lack of a better discharged into a channel of drainage or into a river during the night. For this reason, they are sometimes considered illegal.

Solutions through technology have been developed, including the system Vacutug developed in Kenya in 1996 , to build and maintain local materials through a machine drain low cost, moderate size and simple operation, bound for micro-enterprises dedicated. If the experiments so far seem positive, they require assistance in the creation of these micro-enterprises

Situation in the world

Worldwide coverage

Coverage of basic sanitation in the world after an evaluation of the WSP in 2002.

Global coverage of basic sanitation shown on the map above comes from an estimate made by the Water & Sanitation Program in 2002 (branch of the World Bank ) using different sources. In this context, the "basic sanitation" corresponding to access to "a system of improved excreta disposal" , which includes connections to a sewer system, a septic tank, a water seal latrine, simple pit or ventilated improved pit. However, are not part of the systems 'enhanced' public latrines or shared latrines, open pit (where many pit latrines), bucket latrines and obviously open defecation, in plastic bag, etc..

The methodology points out his own weaknesses, including the difficulty of estimating practices of individuals vis--vis defecation, sensitive subject. If surveys at household level are often used, figures use "official" is inevitable and introduced a degree of optimism in the results: the so-called illegal parts are often ignored as is the case with many slums .

Another source of error is estimated that a household has basic sanitation when has one of the aforementioned types of latrines, but this ignores the many latrines filled, demolished, flooded or unusable another way. Thus, rates of 50% unusable latrines are not uncommon in many places due to lack of maintenance or a drainage system in place. Finally, these figures do not cover the drains or disposal of solid wastes, which are essential to basic sanitation and human dignity.

Developing countries and least developed

Lack of latrines in a slum of Cap-Haitien: the defecation (visible in the foreground) and in the sea is common, lack of resources and space for latrines.

From the same source of WSP coverage of basic sanitation in developing countries reached 73% in urban areas and 31% in rural areas for an average of 48% in 2002 but only 18% of households had a connection to a sewer. In the least developed countries , coverage falls to 57% in urban areas and 27% in rural areas for an average of 35% and 2% of connections to a sewer. In total, this represents more than 2.5 billion people not served by an improved in all developing countries, many likely to increase given the reservations detailed above.

The consequences are disastrous both in health and in terms of human dignity. The methods of defecation unimproved are mainly responsible for faecal-oral diseases such as diarrhea : the 4.4 billion cases of diarrhea reported annually cause more than 2.2 million deaths annually, mostly children under 5 years . The Millennium Development Goals set in 2002 in Johannesburg, aimed to halve the proportion of people without basic sanitation in 1990 (51%) by 2015 and ensure access for all by 2025. For 2015 targets, this would mean not only build 378,000 latrines per day, but also ensure the upkeep and maintenance of existing structures: the reality is still far .

"The fact that 2.6 billion people around the world must defecate in plastic bags, buckets, open pits, fields or public areas in their communities should generate a collective call for immediate and concerted effort to expand access to improved sanitation.

Yet coverage rates in developing countries do not follow that only the growth of world population.

Why is it that sanitation gets so little interest from local and national governments, and from the international community? "

Development and brakes

In developing countries, extending the coverage of latrines is not within single individuals but is often part of a national program, often supported by NGOs, local and international. We observe, however, that sanitation is often a poor relation to other departments, divided between public health, public works, water, etc..

Programs of development are still struggling to include sanitation as a key component: access to water is most often cited, resulting in a share of emotions aroused by the mention of a person without water , secondly by the fact that the engineers responsible for the programs tend to think in terms of sanitation classical engineering (concrete drainage channels, complex systems of waste collection) who reject the latrines in private. Newer approaches such as " social marketing " are the result of the failure of traditional programs too often governed by the available supply and the market. Such an approach was already initiated after the Water and Sanitation Decade, following which a lesson was to move towards demand-based approaches .

The fact that defecation is a sensitive subject is also a factor explaining the lack of enthusiasm in this field: donors and recipients remain reluctant to address a subject that is often deemed not to leave the private sphere. Finally, there are a number of misconceptions about the latrine, though still widely accepted in the developing world: the fact that recipients want to have a latrine for better health (although the privacy, prestige or the absence of odors are common reasons) the fact that water and sanitation should always go together, or the false equality between the construction of latrines and improvement of health .

General references

• Sandy Cairncross and R. Feachem, Environmental Health Engineering in the Tropics, 1993, Wiley & Sons.
• Duncan Mara, Low-cost Urban Sanitation, 1996, Wiley & Sons.

References

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