The Hittites are a people whose language is related to Indo-Europeans. When they appear in Asia Minor , the XXVI ^th century BC. AD , they submit and assimilate indigenous peoples, whose Hattis which they derive their name and various gods, myths and rituals. This mixture arose a flourishing civilization, which lasted until the ^eighth century BC. AD. Besides his great military power, the Hittite civilization seems to have been of great tolerance, both religious and social. The end of the Hittite empire is obscure and little known.

Location of the main sites of the Hittite Anatolia

The Lion Gate at Hattusa

History

The history of this people can be divided into several phases:

Genesis and migration to Anatolia

The Hittites and the peoples Indo-Europeans apparently do not originate from Asia Minor. It seems that the indigenous people or the Hittites , a highly advanced urban civilization of which many traces remain ( Hacilar , atalhyk or Alisar ). The Hittites would come from Europe. Their origin is still unclear, but the common assumption is:

In Neolithic , between ^Seventh and ^Fourth millennium BC , a flourishing civilization develops in the Balkans and the basin of the Danube , very refined, it seems to have created a kind of pictorial writing , probably a syllabary. Meanwhile, the ^fifth millennium , a cruder people speaking a language probably very close to the Indo-European original flourishes on the plains between the Dnieper and the Volga. We characterize this stand by the tombs of the elite: the pits covered with small mounds , called in Russian kurgans , giving a little inaccurately their name to this civilization. In three waves of migration , between ^Fifth and ^Third Millennium , they will destroy civilization Danube. Many people, by mutual assimilation, will result.

It is not known if the Hittites come from the first wave of Kurgan (-4400 to -4200) that would, after reaching the Balkans, were forced to migrate to the Anatolia under the pressure of the second wave of migration or s 'they are from the second migration (-3400/-3200), but not until the end of the ^third millennium as archeology attests population movements from the Balkans to the Anatolia. Speaking populations Luwian seem to settle -2300/-2200: many cities of Asia Minor , including Troy , are devastated. -2000/-1900 To a second wave appears to have installed more quietly, it is the people speaking Hittite-nsite , mainly in the loop of the River Halys. The Hittites are then on the territory of the Hattis and cultural fusion of two civilizations is taking place. Hittite dialect of the city of Nesa (or Kanesh) needed in everyday life, while the language becomes Hattie liturgical language. This merger took place gradually: in effect between the arrival of Indo-European and the finding of the fusion of two civilizations in the preparation of the Assyrians , he spends two to three centuries.

This thesis about the origin of the Hittites, although the most common, is not unanimous. Thus some Hittitologist believe that the Hittites entered Anatolia from the east, others, like Colin Renfrew , even believe that the people are indigenous to Asia Minor and is a descendant cultures atalhyk and early farmers the region.

The era of Assyrian counters

In the early ^second millennium , the Assyrians install twenty outlets in Anatolia. Contrary to the Hittites, Assyrians arriving in small numbers and each desk is a Assyrian colony, separated from the local population. Each of these colonies, called karum retains the traditional Assyrian organization and remains under the authority of the Karum Kanesh , itself controlled by the metropolis. The Assyrians, as evidenced by the many shelves cuneiform found, controlled the entire economy of Asia Minor, especially trade copper. The political power was held by the cons Hittite princes who ruled the multitude of principalities which consisted of Anatolia.

But in the early ^eighteenth century BCE, the upheavals of the Middle East lead to ruin, sometimes violent, of these institutions. This allows a first movement to unify the region, when the Prince of Kussar , (this title will be kept by all descendants) Pithana, captured Nesa , the former economic hub, and settled there. His son Anitta continues his work and unifies a part of Anatolia. In his Proclamation Anitta, he takes the title of Great King that will be used by many rulers of the Middle East during the two millennia following. Anitta was the only king of his dynasty. After him, Anatolia through a dark period of wars and famines that lasts a hundred years, the use of writing disappears almost completely. From this period dates the foundation of Hattusa , which marks the real start of Hittite civilization.

The ancient kingdom (c. -1680/-1495)

Labarna ^I. seems to have been the first true king of the Hittites. Nevertheless, he reigned in Kussar. Few records or remains of his reign proving its existence, apart from the Edict of Telibinu, some historians argue it could be a legendary king. All the kings who succeeded him on the throne Hittite Labarna used the title, using a method similar to that of Roman emperors who used the titles of Caesar and Augustus in the wake of Julius Caesar and Octavian , the winner of the Civil War. Well, probably to mark the continuity with the ephemeral dynasty Anitta, Labarna ^I, and all his successors until the fall of the Empire, took the titles of Great King and man of Kussar, City origin of Pithana, father of the first king Anitta.

His successor was Larbana II changed his name when Hattusili ^I. totaled Hattusa. Their relationships are unclear: some believe that this was the grand-son, nephew or adopted son Labarna. Conquering king, with him the Hittite kingdom extended north to the Black Sea ( Zalpa ), south to the Arzawa and east to the Euphrates. It destroys Alahah , a vassal kingdom of Yamkhad whose capital was Aleppo , becoming the first Hittite king to cross the mountains Taurus separating the Anatolia from Syria today.

Mursili ^I. succeeded his grandfather, great warrior like him, he brought down power Yamkhad which destroyed the capital Aleppo , then in -1594 led a raid on Babylon , he took it, causing the downfall of the dynasty founded by Hammurabi. But waging war far from its capital, the Hittite kingdom is weakened and when Hantili ^I. , brother-Mursili, succeeded him after the murder, it was the beginning of a long period of unrest due to constant court intrigues and perhaps also to the too rapid expansion of the empire. During the revolt of Carchemish , the Hurrian of the Euphrates , revolted and defeated the ruler. The Gasgas made their first forays into the northern provinces (they never cease to be a scourge to the Hittite Empire, the leading possibly to its destruction). His successor, ^I. Zidanta is best known for his ruthlessness, killing the son and grandson of Hantili son to the throne. He eventually killed himself by his own son Ammuna, who replaced him.

During the reign of the latter, the situation worsened Hittite kingdom, with the loss of several provinces with the Arzawa and Adana. After the assassination of his heirs is Huzziya ^I, presumably a descendant illegitimate thing, but to be immediately reversed by Telibinu , son-of Ammuna who exiled him and his brothers. Telibinu then straightened the situation of the kingdom by military victories and the establishment of a law of succession, the Edict of Telibinu and a treaty with the king of Kizzuwatna , the first treaty signed by a Hittite king with a foreign country.

The Kingdom of Hatta (to -1495/-1465)

Telibinu's successors are still poorly understood. Only their names and their sequence are known: Alluwamna, Hantili II, son of the previous Tarhurwaili, Zidanta II Huzziya Muwatalli II and ^I.. However, this period corresponds to a period of weakening of the Hittite State, and that following the emergence of two new external threats:

• the Gasgas , who had made their first appearances in the reign of Hantili ^I, become more menacing. They force Hantili II to strengthen the defenses of the capital and cities near the borders of the kingdom;
• the Hurrian that unify and form the kingdom of Mitanni , whose power is growing rapidly. This annex or vassal state while the kingdoms of Aleppo , of Alahah and Kizzuwatna.

The Middle Kingdom (-1465/-1380)

To -1465, the dynasty founded by Labarna is reversed. This is a consequence of disorders of the preceding reigns, and the new king, Tudhaliya ^I, has ancestries Hurrian and kizzuwatniennes. Taking advantage of the actions of Pharaoh Thutmose III against the Mitanni , who defeated a coalition-Canaanite mitanno the Battle of Megiddo , he won several victories against the Hurrian allowing it to replace the Kizzuwatna under the domination of Hattusa and destroying Aleppo. Apart from the era of good relations with Egypt inaugurated by the new dynasty, Tudhalya deeply renews the country's elite: from his reign, along with the traditional aristocracy, many characters with names of origin of Hurrian occupied positions. Religion also undergoes a strong influence Hurrian, Hittite gods were even replaced by Hurrian gods.

The new empire (-1380/-1190)

The Hittite and Egyptian Empires

After the assassination of the heir to the throne, the young and energetic prince Suppiluliuma ^I. reform completely the Hittite kingdom. This is the actual creation of the Hittite Empire.

Suppiluliuma also restores the kingdom's role as major piece on the chessboard of the Middle East. He struggles against the Mitanni which reduces the power, then he launched a campaign against Kizzuwatna that Annex.

The revival of Hittite power upsets the balance of the Middle East: The Hittites and the Egyptians were exercising a power struggle to control the trade corridor running between Syria and Palestine. But the Pharaohs Egyptian react only weakly with Hittite conquests which annex vassals or allied states of Mitanni , itself an ally of the Egypt : Alalah , Nuhasse and even Kadesh , the key to the valley of the Orontes , are controlled by Suppiluliuma the reign of Akhenaten , the kingdoms of Amurru , of Aziru and Ugarit become vassals during the reign of Tutankhamun. Finally, the last allies of Mitanni yield and Carchemish , controlling the passage of the Euphrates , is incorporated into the empire.

Breaking with tradition, Suppiluliuma consolidating his conquests in passing treaties with vassals, he carefully chooses. He appoints son as his two kings of Aleppo and Carchemish. This city, one of the oldest in the Middle East, became the second city of the empire. Home is where the viceroy, controlling this city all the different kingdoms gradually became Syrian vassals of the Hittite empire. Suppiluliuma strengthens his position by marrying his daughters to various kings of Syria.

While Egyptian forces were repulsed at Kadesh , Pharaoh Tutankhamun died suddenly without an heir. His wife nkhsenpaamon , Suppiluliuma convinces him to send one son to a remarriage. Suppiluliuma finally sends the prince Zannanzach who is murdered before reaching the Egypt. This point remains obscure to historians, some claim that the prince managed to reach Egypt and founded a dynasty (but not explain wars between the two peoples). This event is one of the triggers of wars that opposed the two powers for several generations.

Suppiluliuma dies prematurely of a plague, whose spread was aided by the numerous deportations of his reign. His successor, Arnuwanda II also disappears soon after with the same disease. But the work of Suppiluliuma survives him. The kings of Aleppo and Carchemish , his son and the king of Mitanni , his step-son, are bound by strong ties to the dynasty: they remain faithful to the Hittite kings until the fall of the empire.

Thus, a younger son ascended the throne Suppiluliuma: Mursili II. The situation is difficult: not only the plague ravaging the country, but Mursili must first put down the rebellion of some of vassals. The king gave up some time the capital Hattusa. He conquered the Arzawa and destroyed the kingdom of Azzi. Ugarit and Amurru are forced to renew their treaty of vassalage. Finally, the fight against Gasgas is also necessary: it frees the northern provinces and strengthening the border on the mountains overlooking the Black Sea.

His son Muwatalli II succeeded him on the throne. Like his predecessors, his reign was punctuated by wars. Muwatilli conquers first the kingdom of Wilusa , north-west of the empire, who became his vassal. Then he faces the Gasgas crossing the border, plundering and destroying the Hittite cities. Capital Hattusa is destroyed and the king and his court fled to Tarhuntassa , a southern town. To restore its authority in the north, he appointed his brother Hattusili director of the northern provinces. At the same time, the Assyrian threat becomes clearer: the Mitanni was defeated and became a vassal of the Mesopotamian empire.

During that Hattusili pacifies the north and that the Assyrian king Adad-nirari becomes the overlord of Mitanni , King Muwatalli focuses on neighboring Syria. The conflict with Egypt soon to resume its pharaohs Seti ^I and Ramses II, wishing to recover the possessions lost in the Syrian Akhenaten and Tutankhamun , particularly the Kingdom of the Amurru and the key trade route linking the Mediterranean and Mesopotamia, the citadel of Kadesh, on the border between the zones of influence of the two empires. Ramses wins at first a diplomatic victory by rallying the ruler of Amurru to his cause. The war reached its climax during the Second Battle of Kadesh , real draw that will restore the status quo by putting the kingdom of Amurru under Hittite suzerainty. That was the end of the conflict between the Egyptian and Hittite empires: both will now monopolized by the threat Assyrian.

Muwatalli II died in -1270 and his illegitimate son, Mursili III, succeeded him under the regency of his uncle Hattusili. This will soon rebel and exile Mursili taking refuge on the island of Cyprus. Hattusili III ascended the throne and sign a peace treaty with Egypt (see right ). Having regained the territories occupied by Gasgas and defeated a rebellion of Luwian who did not recognize his usurpation, Hattusili III has a slightly more peaceful reign during which he stabilized the situation in Syria in peace with Egypt and an alliance with Babylon him to monitor the threat Assyrian. But this threat is growing: the Mitanni is broken by the Assyrians in -1260.

The successor of Hattusili III is in accordance with the law of succession, his son, Tudhaliya IV. This first struggles to maintain the unity of the empire, against the kingdoms of Ahhiyawa and Arzawa. During this conflict, he assures his bets by signing peace with Assyria in return for recognition of his conquests. But soon returns to Assyria on the offensive and attack the west bank of the Euphrates, in Hittite hands. Tudhaliya reacts, but the cons-attack ended in failure at the Battle of Nihiriya in -1230.

Tudhaliya while working to impose a naval blockade to Assyria. Using the king of Carchemish, he convinced the Syrian kingdoms, especially Amurru to respect the embargo. They refuse the vessels of the Ahhiyawa. Tudhaliya also landed in the kingdom of Alashiya, the current Cyprus , which pays tribute in copper. The blockade is paying: Assyria sign a peace treaty and return the territories gleaned at the expense of the kingdom of Carchemish.

But Tudhaliya has not only made history on its facts Hittite warriors genuine religious reformer, he reorganized the cult, changed parties and enlarged the sanctuary Yazilikaya.

The causes of the destruction of the Hittite empire are poorly known but four competing theories, while being complementary:

• destruction by the migration of Gasgas and Phrygians;
• destruction by the Sea Peoples as told by the Egyptians, but that seems unlikely since the Sea People have never really away from the coast, although they probably caused the damage;
• the rise of Assyria that would eventually destroy the Hittite empire;
• finally a revolt in the western empire that would have led to its dismantling.

The neo-Hittite kingdoms

At the same time, around -1190 , the Phrygians , a people other Indo-European , invaded the central plateau of Anatolia and to establish their kingdom and their cities. However, the Hittite civilization survives the collapse of its historic center. In southern Anatolia and in Syria, many kingdoms language Luwian is based: in Cappadocia , a dozen princes come together at the Confederation of Tabal , while in the east, along the ' Euphrates , other principalities appear: Milid the Kummuhu the Gurgum. To the south, we find the following States: the Cilicia , the kingdoms of Ya'diya and Carchemish , Pattin , Arpad , the kingdom of Aleppo , the Principality of Til Barsip and finally the kingdom of Hama. Carchemish , where descendants reign the dynasty Suppiluliuma ^I, reprising the role of cultural capital of the world abandoned by Hittite Hattusa. These kingdoms are certainly not any major political role, but they thrive in the ^twelfth century to ^the ninth century BC, and it is between -745 and -708 as the latest disappear one after another under the blows of the Assyrians. The most powerful of them, the kingdom of Carchemish , dark -717 , marking the end of the Hittite civilization.

Religion

A huge pantheon

The Great Temple (Temple 1) Hattusa , Turkey, the ^thirteenth century BC. AD

Profoundly polytheistic, so much so that the Hittites themselves spoke of their "thousand gods, their religion was characterized by three basic phenomena: first it is the result of a syncretism between the original religion of this people and that practiced by Hattis and other indigenous, and then each region, each locality had its own pantheon, and finally, the gods worshiped by the Hittites have significantly changed over the centuries by the assimilation of deities of their neighbors, sometimes by with other similar identifier of an earlier pantheon. An effort to identify the gods took place under the empire each city retained the names of his own gods, but the gods of each city having significant similarities as to their functions were identified by unique logograms: UTU for deities solar, U IM for storm gods, LAMMA or KAL for the patron gods of nature. At the top of the dynastic pantheon in lieu of the official pantheon sits a storm god whose identity varies with the king. Called Teshub in Hurrian and Tarhunt in Hittite-Luwian, it is associated with the bull. Another important dynastic deity, the goddess of the earth Sun is the mistress of the underworld. It forms, with various gods of the storm (the storm god and the god of Nerik the storm pihassassi), the divine couple at the head of the pantheon official for much of Hittite history. The cave shrine Yazilikaya is however a different pantheon Official: This is the one chosen by King Tudhaliya IV. This pantheon, strongly hourritis, is chaired by the divine couple Teshup Aleppo and liver.

Worship

The temple houses, as elsewhere in the East, the divine statue entitled to defined daily care rituals. The main celebrations take place in spring and autumn, at which time the god from the temple. It is often taken to a sanctuary outside the city of rituals specific to each deity are then accompanied by sacrifices that give the opportunity for a meal together; games in a sports competition and mock battles complete these festivals.

People we worship is practically unknown. Only a few texts detailing ritual prescriptions seem to be practiced in both the elite and the popular sphere. Divination and magic play an important role. The Hittites adopted the extipicine , the practice of reading entrails, has long been practiced in Mesopotamia. They also divination techniques which we know no parallel in the Mesopotamian world: the technique known as "Kin spells" which is to observe and manipulate objects that represent active and passive, the technique known as "oracles MUSH which is based on observation, in a basin of water, a water snake or probably more of a serpentine fish (eel) and ornithomancie analyzing the movements of birds. Ritual texts describe various magical practices whose function can be therapeutic, even cathartic exorcist. The texts describe particular practices benevolent magic, but some passages are also referred to and fro to the existence of witchcraft Hittite. It was prohibited by the Code of Laws, it is practiced in the shadows.

A temple, whose owner was a soothsayer, was found at Emar, with its archives and library. The Euphrates was the way of natural expansion of the cultural practices of Mesopotamia to Northern Syria and the Hittite world, and thence to the Mediterranean. It is recognized that the Hatt has certainly been a liturgical language.

Languages

Many languages were spoken in Hittite history. People Indo-European , the Hittites spoke nsite (or nsite-Hittite), the main representative of the branch of the Anatolian languages. This was the official language of the empire. Next to it there are basically two other related languages: the Luwian from southern Anatolia (Kingdom of Kizzuwatna ) will be the main language of neo-Hittite kingdoms in northern Syria and Palaic spoken north-west of Hatti. Remains of other Anatolian dialects were found in any modern Turkey: the Lydian on the Aegean coast, the Carian coast south-west, Pisidians and sidetable on the south coast. Almost all of these Indo-European languages will disappear along with the empire. The Luwian survive a few centuries in Syria and will give birth to Lycian.

But, besides the Indo-European languages spoken by the invaders Hittite we find in Hittite Anatolia to other languages. First, the native language Hatt , agglutinative language , which became after the arrival of the Hittite language in which the dead-hittique nsique has borrowed many words, especially in the cultural and religious as it was the liturgical language throughout the ^second millennium BC. AD. Spoken in eastern Kizzuwatna on the Euphrates (in particular the Mitanni ) and in the vassal states in Syria, Hurrian , other agglutinative language is increasingly used by the Hittites, particularly in administrative and religious : this comes from the campaign undertaken by hourritisation Suppiluliuma at its far-reaching reform at the beginning of the Empire. Finally the Akkadian , the diplomatic language of the era, is also demonstrated, especially after the raid on Babylon Mursili ^I.. It is nevertheless a use in the correspondence is not likely to use language in everyday life.

Writing systems

The Hittites had no writing when they arrived in Anatolia. This is of course they adopted the system used locally, the cuneiform writing , which they adapted to their language. Indeed, the cuneiform script originally created for the transcription of the Sumerian , agglutinative language , had been adapted to the transcription of ia.org / wiki /% C3% Langue_s A9mitique "alt =" Semitic Language "class =" mw-redirect "> Semitic languages, but does not necessarily suited to the writing of an Indo-European language. It nevertheless rather late that cuneiform was used, probably after the expeditions in Mesopotamia, because the primer used is different from that used previously in counters Assyrian and closer to that used in Babylon.

Beside the cuneiform, the Hittites used primarily for monumental inscriptions, a hieroglyphic script. The symbols of this writing are improperly called Hittite hieroglyphs because they rarely transcribe the Hittite language-nsique: Most entries are indeed monumental inscriptions in Luwian.

During the third, second and first millennia, the parchment remained scarce and expensive, like vellum. The scoring system at the time was a tablet, which presented itself as a small box filled with clay and moist with a cool cloth placed on the surface. Using a small tool like a stylus or a metal reed pen cut the reed , were inscribed on the tablet surface that was desired note, and that could keep the cooking to oven. Cuneiform signs were trained vertically by tapping the stylus on the tablet surface, then pulling to form a line.

Texts

Text of the Treaty of Kadesh

Continuing even today, the campaigns of archaeological research has uncovered more than 31,000 tablets, many of which are only fragments. One currently knows over 75 different Hittite texts, of very unequal length, a few lines about a hundred pages in print. It is estimated that these texts represent about 15% of the texts produced, a figure advanced by reading files from a library shelf Hittite.

The oldest texts are like historical chronicles and history , in which a sovereign outlined how his reign took place. Even if these are the main sources of information on the time, they should be approached from a critical angle.

The second type of text most often found are legal, what are the Hittite law codes, with more than 200 legal articles in various fields. These texts, allowing us to determine the fundamentals of Hittite society, but without the means to confirm their actual application. It would perhaps be a case study intended to exercise the legal profession.

A third category of texts are found in many international treaties, and administrative instructions, which were considered by the Hittites as similar. It was actually sent instructions to local delegates representing the central government (governors of cities or rulers of kingdoms feudalism), or military instructions and customs. The latter, addressed to the border guards, and have delineated the borders of the Hittite empire over time. International treaties concerning relations with neighboring powers: it allows us to gauge the importance of this kingdom in all of Asia Minor. It has found diplomatic exchanges between the Hittite Empire and Egypt written in Akkadian. These matches show the existence of relationships across cordial as distant, and in particular - XIV ^century after the death of Tutankhamun.

The vast majority of the 750 Hittite texts found are religious: a first part of them are type ritual, used in all situations, to seek protection of a god. They are relatively short, and decompose into a contextual description of the ritual and a series of instructions. There are rituals for all types of situations, and their numbers have steadily increased during the history. A second part of these religious texts are of the mythological, in the form of stories. They are much less developed than those of ancient Greece , and describe the Hittite pantheon dominated by the god of the storm, then a series of important gods in charge of argriculture, war, etc.. and finally the local gods or minors. A third of these texts on magic, which also includes medicine, because the very concept of medicine involves magical practices that rely on divination. These powers are exclusive to women, witches in the vast majority Luwian , in charge of interpreting omens. Even today, we continue to find documents in Hittite Anatolia.

Society

The world is divided into two Hittite. The court - made up of members of the royal family, a number of aristocratic families and family members of sovereign neighbors, linked to the Hittite Empire by treaties, the higher clergy and the palace staff - live closed and only the royal justice applies to these wealthy.

The lower people on the other hand is divided between free men, serfs and slaves:

• free men are mainly artisans, merchants and peasants;
• the serfs are formed by people deported at the whim of wars: the serfs, bound to the land where they are established can not move freely. These deportations were intended to repopulate the devastated areas;
• the slave has a proper legal status, which is exceptional for its time. His master may sell or punish him, but slaves can go to court, marry a free woman or own property.

Kingship

The Hittite kingdom was very different from some contemporary monarchies, especially the Egyptian monarchy: indeed, unlike Pharaoh , the king was not considered a god in his lifetime. The land belonged to the Hittite gods, the king was their representative and managed on their behalf. Only after his death that the king was deified, his statue joined that of his ancestors. Moreover, the term used to indicate the death of the king also meant "to become god."

Thus, as a representative of the gods, invested by the storm god Tarhunt is the function of high priest who prevailed over others. Thus, although the commander in chief Hittite permanent, the king did not hesitate to interrupt the countryside, even remotely, to take its role in the liturgy.

Besides these two roles, the king was also the head of the judiciary, and as the ultimate recourse to justice, and the head of diplomacy.

Many terms are used in Hittite texts refer to the monarch. The pronunciation of some of them are also not known as the Hittites using cuneiform have sometimes taken the sumrogrammes and akkadogrammes without modification to represent their own words:

• LUGAL means the average importance of kings: the heads of vassal kingdoms or those cities that are part of the empire;
• LUGAL GAL, "Great King", means the Hittite king, the king of kings. It also describes major foreign sovereigns (Egyptian, Babylonian or even Achaean);
• Labarna (pre-Hittite) or Tabarna (Hittite), "Solar", the sun god, an honorary title given to kings;
• hassu;
• UTU "Sun."

List of Hittite kings

Legendary

• To -2160 : Pamba
• To -2050 : Pithana
• To -1900 : Anitta

of the ancient kingdom

• -1680 / -1650 : Labarna ^I.
• -1650 / -1620 : II Labarna then Hattusili ^I.

• -1620 / -1590 : Mursili ^I.
• -1590 / -1560 : Hantili ^I.
• -1560 /? : Zidanta ^I.
• Ammuna
• ? / -1525 : Huzziya ^I.
• -1525 / -1495 : Telibinu

the Kingdom of Hatta

• -1495 /? : Alluwamna
• Hantili II

• Tarhurwaili
• Zidanta II

• Huzziya II

• ? / -1465 : Muwatalli ^I.

Middle Kingdom

• -1465 / -1420 : Tudhaliya ^I.
• -1420 / -1400 : Arnuwanda ^I.
• -1400 / -1397 : II Tudhaliya the Tukhanti

• -1397 / -1395 : Hattusili II

• -1395 / -1380 : Tudhaliya III

the new empire

• -1380 / -1342 : Suppiluliuma ^I.
• -1342 / -1340 : Arnuwanda II

• -1340 / -1310 : Mursili II

• -1310 / -1270 : Muwatalli II

• -1270 / -1265 : Mursili III

• -1265 / -1250 : Hattusili III

• -1250 / -1210 : IV Tudhaliya

• -1210 / -1200 : Arnuwanda III

• -1200 / -1190 : Suppiluliuma II

The assembly

If the existence of a meeting is confirmed by documents hittiques was still little certainty about it. The texts found using two terms: tuliya and Panku. The first term could be used to describe the meeting as a group of people, so physical, while the second refers rather the institutional role, function. It is unknown if there were one or two. It also ignores its composition: it was delegates, noble, influential figures such as senior officials, religious? and the mode of appointment of its members. Our knowledge of the powers of this assembly are unclear, many believe she had an advisory role. The frequency of its meetings higher in the early monarchical period led to the hypothesis that the meeting was a hangover from the culture Hattie, in which the monarchy was elective.

Army

The Hittite people is in its origins a conquering people. The army command is provided by the king, who sometimes went himself to the battle. But he could delegate his authority in cases of religious offices to do or if health problems. The Hittite army, strong in normal times of some thirty thousand men, is formed by those who have power in respect of military obligations, by mercenaries and by contingents from the vassal states. The organization of the army is decimal: The basic unit consists of ten men commanded by an officer from the gentry. The top level contains a hundred men, and the next thousand. There is probably not pay for men normally required for service and they will usually pay the loot. Stationary, the army has to live on the country, but there is a supply service which is equipped armies of bullock carts and donkeys. The weapons are the spear, sword straight or curved, dagger, ax and bow with a quiver of thirty arrows instead used by light infantry. The warrior is protected by a scale armor, helmet and shield.

It has two arms, infantry and tanks. The infantry occupies the leading role on rough terrain, however, its role in maintaining order in the dominated countries is essential. She is especially trained to launch surprise attack and therefore unexpected, his methodical training and discipline make it a very good weapon. Otherwise, when the terrain permits, the tank is an essential element of combat: Lightweight and maneuverable, fast, it provides a relatively rapid firing. It is mounted by the driver, a fighter and an assistant to protect others with a shield. Instead using the spear as the arrow (used by the Egyptians), the Hittites made it an effective offensive weapon, in charge of running into enemy ranks, to break up and sow panic.

The Hittites are also mastered the art of urban walls. In addition, the Hittites are considered the inventors of the steel. Indeed, this was the first people to use iron instead of copper or bronze to make weapons (swords, shields) ^Law

The Hittite law is poorly known, mainly through the statute books (two tables found in Hattusa ) and not by documents of practice, such as contracts. It seems to be one of the most advanced ancient times, and this very early, in the ^second millennium BC. AD. Dating from - XIV ^century , laws are made by a bottom customary archaic, law and royal laws from different eras.

The criminal part is seeking more compensation for the damage suffered (such as the restoration of a plantation sacked) as revenge. The laws focus on the amendment of the offender, and many are provided monetary compensation. Temporary incapacity of work are scheduled, and the manager must replace the victim in person or by a slave, he also pays the medical and compensation. Monetary compensation is lower if the crime is committed against a person of the ordinary.

Nevertheless, there are penalties of mutilation (ears or nose) reserved for slaves to theft or fire. The death penalty is also planned, but with limited scope for the time: rebellion against the king or one of its senior officials, a slave rebellion, adultery on the woman, rape, and a spell slave. Especially, the law provides for it to be imposed without being accompanied by torture. The penalty is individual, except in cases of collective responsibility of a city, a provision archaic patriarchal, reflecting a weak judicial repression. For the period, thereby to provide for cases where the death penalty is applied to the slave is a step forward, because in all human contemporaries, he is a property on which his master has the same rights as an animal or object.

Civil , women enjoy a privileged status, for the time. While the marriage was concluded by purchase or abduction in this case compensation of the family is also planned, but the divorce and rape are recognized, the latter being put to death, and the queen legitimate government in the absence of king. However the absence of documents proving the application of the texts moderates analysis that can make these provisions.

In the field of international law after the null result of Kadesh , Ramesses II and III Hattusili , both concerned about the rising power of Assyria , which sign is the first international treaty known to history. Fortunately, both versions of this document we have received and we can discover a non-aggression pact, a pact of mutual assistance provisions and even mutual extradition of refugees.

The art, clothing and architecture Hittite

Hittite Art

The beginnings

Initially Hittite art takes the form of small statuettes of amulets rarely exceeding 30 cm. These representations of deities are often semi-abstract. There are often the reason for the two-headed : statuettes with two heads or two bodies, including the two-headed eagle, which later became the symbol of many Western powers.

The materials used are the clay , the silver , the gold but also the ivory and even the rock crystal.

The Imperial Age

During their conquests and wars, the Hittite come into contact with many cultures from which they draw on, including the Egyptians. All this will create a specific Hittite art. We find it in the bas-reliefs, the figures of gods and kings, as Yazlkaya. This is an imposing imperial Hittite art (representations of several meters high at times), flamboyant, realistic and releases the confidence felt by the Hittites at this time in their history.

The Neo-Hittite is mainly characterized by the great Greek influence she undergoes.

Hittite architecture

Religious architecture Hittite is massive, all in stone, sometimes with a stage, with the foundation walls of orthostats. Civil architecture Hittite is characterized by a stone foundation and walls of mud brick. These walls are also unusual angles, rarely at right angles. A constant in the urban architecture Hittite is a major concern of water supply.

Clothes

The traditional dress Hittite is mainly characterized by the half-boots, everywhere, for men as for women, including acting as inspiration for libation vases! For the rest the differences with other tribes were not marked, further evidence of the ease of integration of Hittite.

Hittite Archaeological Sites

• Hattusa (Boazky);
• Kanesh (Kltepe);
• Alacahyk ;
• Acemhyk ;
• Alishar ;
• Tappika ( Masat Hyk );
• Shapinuwa ( Ortaky );
• Sarissa ( Kusakli );
• Yazlkaya.

The descendants of the Hittites

According to the work of a research team (composed of Turks, Spaniards and Czechs) to DNA , the people of Kurdistan , the current inhabitants of Turkey , and Armenians appear to have a genetic common, which descend from the ancient Hittite and Hurrian this fund on the Anatolian plateau to -2000.

Notes

General references

• K. Bittel, The Hittites, Paris, 1976;
• Mr. Desta, Anatolian Civilizations, Paris, 1998;
• I.Klock-Fontanille, The Hittites, Paris, 2008;
• The Hittites, the Indo-European flower rock, The Hot Archaeology , No. 193, May 1994;
• (De) Klengel H., Geschichte des Reiches Hethetische, Leiden 1999;
• (In) T. Bryce
  • The Kingdom of the Hittites, Oxford, 1998;
  • Life and Society In The Hittite World, Oxford, 2004;
• (In) BJ Collins, The Hittites and Their World, Atlanta, 2007;
• J. Freu and Mazoyer,
  • Origins to the end of the old Hittite kingdom, The Hittites and Their Stories 1, Paris, 2007;
  • The beginnings of the new Hittite Empire The Hittites and their history 2, Paris, 2007;
  • The climax of the New Hittite Empire The Hittites and Their History 3, Paris, 2008.

External Links

• Grammar of the Hittite
• (En) The Hittites (personal site)

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