Gladiators (from Latin gladiator meaning "swordsman" or "Swordsman" .

Pollice verso Inches of The Netherlands or Jean-Lon Grme , 1872. Romantic vision of the gladiator, the gesture of thumb to decide life or death of gladiators never actually existed in antiquity.

The desecration of munera

Originally Etruscan , the gladiator had in them a religious significance. Some citizens were fighting gladiators privately. The blood was poured appease the manes. Gladiator fights or munera gradually lost the character and religious funeral and became ambivalent, like other shows. It exercised a strict control for the annual munus gave the lenders to limit the amount of money involved. He was forbidden to organize a munus without prior authorization of the senate , to give more than twice a year, or to publish over 120 gladiators during a given show. The private munera came under the exclusive control of the state. Only the emperor could exceed the limits. And Augustus he hired his reign about 10,000 gladiators, ten times the maximum allowed. By the end of the reign of Augustus , the venatio found himself integrated into munus very closely, and we are now witnessing complete shows, the munus legitimum (or justum), which included hunting and animal fighting morning, an interlude in mid-day gladiatorial combats in the afternoon.

Also, the time from noon to the hottest hours of the day unfolded executions of prisoners sentenced to death, most often using a myth (the myth of Icarus , the prisoner is stuck with the wings wax and is dropped from the last building designed for this purpose).

Recruitment

The fighters could both be seasoned professionals that novices, slaves or free men without distinction ethnic or sexual abuse (fighting women were only very few most wanted). So Vitellius , the unsuccessful candidate for the succession of Nero , "he relented Asiaticus, his favorite slave, a lanista street: its prudery exasperated . Hadrian banned the sale of slaves to gladiatorial schools and Marcus Aurelius extended this measure to venatores. As free men who chose the career of the amphitheater , they were more numerous. Gladiators were contracted to a three to five years after which, if they came after winning their last fight, they were clear terms of the contract and had earned enough money to ensure a Life of a higher level and forget and poverty.

The auctoratus

At the end of the Republic , the character of "engaged", the auctoratus, frequently appears in "Atellanes" fables farcical original Oscan , highly prized in Rome. At the time of its incorporation, the man went free with a contract lanista (auctoratio) for a fixed term. The origin of this practice dates back to senior Republican era, a time when the powerful gentes who ruled Rome were surrounded by an army private. Gladiatorien the oath is preserved in several texts and particularly in a passage of Petronius: "We support him prtmes oath of fire, chains, beatings, death by the sword ... Like gladiators regularly committed we devote the most complete our master and our bodies and our lives . "The new Gladiator lanista therefore recognizes the right of torture and imprisonment in case of disobedience or lack of fighting spirit.

Knights

Besides the men that poverty and ruin condemned to the sword, raging gladiator exception. From -46, the knights fought in the arena. Octave , in -29, which gave a munus appeared for the first time a senator, Q. Vitellius. In Year 2, the Knights were given the formal right to be gladiators, but this decision was not well accepted: Tiberius refused to attend a fight between two of them. Nero favored lowering massive aristocrats in the arena : 400 senators and 600 knights were opposed in the year 57. The gladiatorial splendor we also learn that Titus gave a fight to Reate during a celebration of local youth. As for chest , the sources converge to say that it was more gladiator emperor. But all these confrontations took place with weapons harmless essential difference that distinguished them from the real fighting.

The emperor - the largest munraires - employed a large number of gladiators in Rome, and wherever the games were organized on his behalf. For the source of supply does not dry up, the Empire was divided into districts headed by equestrian procurators, responsible for recruiting and training the future gladiators for 60,000 sesterces per annum.

The ludi

The fighters were trained in barracks located in the imperial provinces. Imperial schools ( ludi ) were dispersed in the Empire : in the Iberian peninsula (in Betic and Tarraconaise ) in Narbonne Gaul ( Nimes , Narbonne , Draguignan , Die ) ... that of Aquileia and Capua were renamed. In the eastern half of the empire, that of Ancyra , in Thessaloniki , of Pergamum and Alexandria were also known.

Alongside these institutions imperial ludi of private had multiplied. However, in Rome , the preparation of the games was an imperial monopoly. Four high schools were located near the Colosseum : the ludus magnus, the ludus Matutinus, the ludus dacicus and ludus gallicus. Their plan was identical, simple and functional cells of accommodation and service were spread around a training area. The most famous of these schools was the Ludus Magnus, the great hall. Its director was an important figure because, for the populace as to the Roman emperor, shows the organization held a special place in the daily life of the city. This charge well paid (200 000 sesterces ) was favored by the emperor: it was likely to promote the careers of ambitious knights. But required people to grasp, because the discipline was fierce.

The ludus hunters (ludus Matutinus) already existed in the reigns of Claude or Nero , but Domitian restored it and created a procuratle riding for his command. With only 60,000 sesterces per year, this position was far less well paid than the previous, less glamorous, too. The last centuries of the Republic were the golden age of the ludi private Spartacus that made him famous of Gnaeus Lentulus Batiatus , located in Capua , Julius Caesar possessed him also to Capua.

In Pompeii , the barracks of the gladiators who was the former villa of M. Lucretius Fronto was cleared during excavations in the late eighteenth ^century. Many graffiti etched by the gladiators in memory of their victories or their amorous conquests are on the walls of this once magnificent home. The urgency of a larger space was felt during the reign of Nero and a large porch, located behind the stage wall of the theater was built. Cells were created on the ground floor and upstairs, and a big kitchen, meeting room and an apartment for lanista. The court served as training ground. During the first excavations in 1766, fifteen were found helmets and other pieces defensive ( leggings and shoulder pads ).

The nomadic gladiators

Following the rhythm of fighting, a gladiatorial traveled frequently across the Empire. This mobility varied according to the contracts negotiated between munraires and lanista. Pompeii attracted gladiators from all over the Campania and Capua particular. This of course affected nomadic staff ludus as a whole. The movements were made both from the West to the East than in the opposite direction. Many gladiators were Greek or Eastern and Western engaged in Munera. Troops of combatants of the arena also followed the Emperors on the move: Caligula , who was visiting Lyon , gave a munus with his own men.

Nickname and armatur

The onomastic Traditional Latin (name, surname, nickname) is rarely used to describe the gladiators they are appointed, usually by a moniker familiar to all lovers of Munera. These names refer to the arena gods and heroes of mythology - Hermes , Astyanax , Perseus , Cupid , Ajax , Patroclus , Bellerophon - or emphasize the physical qualities of Gladiator, strength Herakles ("the Husky "), Ursius (" Strong as a bear "), the vivacity Fulgur (" Lightning "), Polydromos, Okus, Callidromus (" the Quick "). Others cite the lucky Faustus ("The Lucky"), Felix ("The Blessed"), Victor ("Victory"); Nicphoros, or the memory of ancient gladiators stars as Columbus Nimes, which focused the name of a hero of the arena during the reign of Caligula. Still others, owe their nickname to their stature: Ametystus, Beryllus ("brilliant," "a precious glow"), or Narcissos Callimorphos ("The Well Built").

When the new Gladiator arrived in the ludus, he began by being provocator. This type of gladiator was the place to be all the newcomers, because with this armaturae the basic movements were integrated by new students. Then having a little more seasoned, the gladiator armaturae could choose according to his physical abilities, or as required by the lanista. Among the twenty armaturae known, only five or six have been precisely identified.

The gladiator nicknamed "Astyanax" was a mirmillon. There is a mosaic dating from the ^fourth century, which illustrates, among other scenes showing, against a fighter in training retiarius called "Kalendio.

Spartacus was a parmularius Thrace.

Organization

On the eve of battle, a banquet was given to gladiators (cena libera). Spectators can attend the banquet and see the value of the combatants. The loser of the combat death and always ask if the Emperor is present, it shall decide taking into account the opinion of the public. Mitte ("leave it"), stemming ("butchered it") or stante missi ("draw"). After many victories, can get the gladiator a wooden sword, the rudius sign of liberation.

Types

Curriculum and combat suit

Terra-cotta statuette of a gladiator (Antiquarium Milan )

There were several ranks among the gladiators. The primi pali also called primus palus (first stakes "or" poles ") were among combat veterans. This grade was referring to the wooden stake ("marshes") used in training. The distinction appears in Rome at the time Flavian , on the epitaph of secutor T. Flavius Incitatus Sixteen-time winner. This higher level is often found to ^Second and ^third centuries , both East and West, with other grades: we also know the secunda secundus or Pali Pali or marshes and marshes, etc..

The gladiator was a beginner tiro. Except for the draw - who generally fought among themselves - many combinations are possible between armaturae. This is where a speaker all the know-how munraire. The gladiator should not be limited to a butcher: it was an art of fencing. The military theorist Vegetius also liked to brag about the ability of soldiers to gladiators legions to stimulate them further. Several principles guided the munraire in his arrangements. Dresser heavy gladiators them favored close combat and physical strength. The opposition between light fighters gave priority to the agility and technique. The combinations most learned consisted of bringing together armaturae heavy and light. Based on the attack, evasion and pursuit, this type of fighting was popular in the ^first century. Thus, the retiarius was opposed to mirmillon or secutor.

The confrontation between carrying small shields - parm - (Thracian, and hoplomaques provocatores) long and shields - scut - ( Samnite , mirmillons , secutor) captivated the crowds. The audience ranged in parmularii and scutarii fever and earned the highest echelons of power: Caligula and Titus were supporters of small shields while Domitian was a big fan of the long shields. Sculptured monuments and inscriptions testify to other combinations essdaires equites and were still fighting among themselves. However, there has never objected to other retiarii retiarii. The mirmillons fought mostly against the Thracian or during a time retiarii.

These duels were the highlights of munus. But during intermission, parodies of combat were offered to the public: fencing demonstrations by pgniarii, sometimes armed with sticks.

During the reign of Nero, in 63, the gladiators appeared for the first time in the arena: "It gave the same year shows of gladiators as magnificent as the previous ones, but many women of high rank and senators deteriorated in descending into the arena . "A passage from Petronius cites the case of a woman essdaire and Juvenal shows gladiators in training: "They dig (the marshes) to large sword, they assail him with their shields , attentive to run the whole series of commands ... See how eagerly she moved inflicted the blows that he teaches. "The pairs of gladiators appear to have been particularly popular during the reign of Domitian. They were women of character. Several occurred during the Games decennial Septimius Severus as they fought hard, cursing at passing the aristocracy installed in the lodge. Become sources of disorder and unrest, the emperor had to ban them from the arena by a decree dating from the year 200 .

Hunters

the Colosseum in Rome

Mosaic Smirat the Archaeological Museum of Sousse with scenes of battles between humans and animals, 225 - 250 AD. AD

The venatores we must clearly distinguish bestiarii, professional hunters were trained as gladiators. Their dress is very light, not hinder their movements, recognizable by their short tunics. However, some hunters wore tights decorated as evidenced by the African mosaics of ^Second and ^Third Centuries. Some are almost naked, and still others have the torso and left arm covered with sheets of leather. The hunts were very popular in Africa , as evidenced by the many floors and luxurious villas. Mosaic Smirat (Tunisia) is a true story epigraphic and iconographic given a memorable hunting at an unknown date ^of the third century by the rich Magrius a significant Byzacena Coast.

As for the munus, women also took part in some venationes. According to several sources , women venatares participated in the inauguration of the Colosseum : "The lion shot in the wide valley of Nemea, illustrious and worthy feat of Hercules, that's what kept saying Fame. That the ancient legend is silent: for after the shows you gave, Caesar, we must now recognize that a woman can achieve similar feat . "

Hero of the arena

Gladiators and bestaires (mosaic Zliten )

Inscriptions detailing often the ranking of the best gladiators. Maximus, the Imperial ludus Capua , in the first half of the ^first century, was victorious 40 times and won 36 crowns . Deserving fighters could be rewarded with a postage : gladiators released (or Liberati rudiarii) were then released from their obligation to fight. Some got rich, turned into leaders, owners of a beautiful country house while their son tried to fill the theater seats Knights . But these careers were happy ending except: Based on inscriptions , the average age of death of the gladiators was between 20 and 30. There are some exceptional situations: a stele in the archaeological museum of Istanbul shows two gladiators, neon and Philemon, probably culled for health reasons .

The most talented gladiators enjoyed immense popularity, a Thracian Suspirium puellarum nicknamed "the sigh of the girls" put women in a trance Pompeii. The numerous graffiti that depict the players of the arena also reflect this interest. In one of his satires , the poet Juvenal mocked these uncontrolled passions: Epia, a senator's wife, abandoned her husband for significant follow an adventurer, Sergiolus, a gladiator charismatic, despite his arm slashed, his nose broken and his black eye and accompanied him to Egypt .

Life and Death

Gladiatorial combat, the British Museum.

The revolt of Spartacus shook the Roman Republic. In year 64 , lifting a hundred gladiators Praeneste caused great concern in Rome. This movement was contained thanks to the vigilance of the garrison who were monitoring, but the alert was hot: "Already, the people in his conversations, recalled former Spartacus and misfortunes ..." . ^In the third century during the reign of Probus , 80 gladiators escaped from a school in Rome. Once again, soldiers were sent against them and, despite their numerical superiority, they triumphed with difficulty. Taking into account the revolt of Spartacus (who was not a gladiator) during these 800 years of gladiatorial, historians identify a revolt and there are doubts about its origin.

The numerous funerary inscriptions referring to the gladiators can approach their environment and framework for their privacy. Many fighters were living with a woman, wife or concubine most often. They are often the cause of epitaphs. More rarely, the retired gladiator who offers his wife for burial. When the nomadic profession forbade any family, friends sometimes made funeral honors the gladiator who died in combat.

Some guilds hunters or gladiators were united by a common worship. These brotherhoods (sodalitats) watched the funeral of their individual members. The ties of solidarity thus created were too strong professional relationships that exist within familiae. We know the existence of colleges of its kind in Narbonne (near Die), but also in Rome: the ^first century , the retiarius T. Claudius Firmus belonged to the Sodality ludus magnus . Convenient encouraged these associations, including his close relationship with the College of Aurelian Silvani, an inscription found in 1755 near Rome informs us . This brotherhood comprised of 32 gladiators decuries divided into three, and a group of two. The first brought together veterans of servile condition, the second mixed with beginners (Tiron), a gunsmith, a veteran and a masseur, and the third met exclusively channels; in the fourth, finally, were a paegniarius and a Thracian.

These sodalitates, which were attached an emblem and a number, grew especially among African venatores proconsul. The crescent on the pole figure and III were the hallmarks of Telegenii, whose four members are represented on the mosaic of Smirat. Since the research of A.. Beschaouch, there are several other associations venatores in Roman Africa.

In its distant origins, the munus was related to funerary ritual and, although the evolution was made in the direction of secularization, its religious character has never disappeared. Insofar as they demanded the bloodshed, the munera remained, even more than other ludi, attached to the worship of the infernal deities.

"We must now say a few words why the generals who had left for an expedition custom of giving gladiatorial combat and the sight of great hunts. According to some authors, the ancients had imagined this use on the enemy to divert the anger of heaven, believing that the blood of citizens, paid, like the victims in those contests, imitated from the war, enough to satiate Nemesis , c ' is to tell the fortune of battles . "

In several amphitheaters, small chapels that communicated with the arena were used for devotions before the fighting. Very often, Sacele were spent Nemesis: this applies to Merida , in Tarragona , in Italica (Spain) , to Carnuntum (Austria) where the two amphitheaters - civilian and military - each had a chapel under the protection of the goddess.

The headstones also bring their testimony to the importance of the cult among the world arena: the retiarius Glaucus, who died at Verona in his eighth fight, reproached the goddess of having betrayed while Leote, primus palus at Halicarnassus , offers her jewels and clothes.

Hercules , the god of athletic and fearless fighters, was also often used by gladiators. Before retiring to the countryside, the gladiator released Veianus suspended its arms to a pillar of the temple of Hercules . We know from Tertullian that March and Diane also presided duels and hunts : the god of war was also watching the gladiators whose job was close to that of soldiers, as well as Diana, goddess of hunting, assured protection to the amphitheater hunters.

The dark underground where they deposited the remains of gladiators and hunters were the scene of strange practices. In the basement of the arena of Carthage were discovered the most significant documents: 55 strips of lead wrapped around themselves on the texts inscribed with a curse. They were lodged with the corpses to better unleash the evil gods against the gladiators in operation: Gallicus cons, for example, "for he can not kill the bear or the bull, but he was killed by them ... he was wounded, killed, exterminated! . Or cons for Marussus "he succumbs to the bite of deer, bulls, boars and lions! These rites of black magic taking place also in Trier. The demons were also particularly sensitive to the blood of the arena: Apuleius reports that the sorceress Pamphile used for the skinned and gladiators for the preparation of his potions .

When running, the gladiator's blade penetrated by the throat and ran toward the center of the ribcage , directly reaching the heart. The image of the Games Organizing raising or lowering his thumb, and thus ordered the execution is wrong.

Professor Groschmidt noted that injuries during the fight ( fractures and other bone lesions, wounds) were completely cured, indicating that the gladiators enjoyed excellent care using advanced techniques such as the therapy used Today in orthopedics.

Historical Milestones

• -105. Practiced since the time Etruscan , the gladiatorial games are integrated into Roman public by Marius. These fights were sometimes fatal and highly codified no resemblance to the caricatures presented by Hollywood movies in particular. However, the Romans questioned early on the value and legitimacy of such a spectator sport. The gladiator indeed required the relinquishment of the rights of citizenship Roman is almost a heresy for a Roman! But it was worth the effort for some, because fame and fortune in the arena was harvested considerable. Historians are now studying with new eyes the Roman gladiator in a more "sporty" edge and sharply with the historiography under the total control classical Christian texts very hostile to the practice. The Greeks also adopt this martial sport, but the gladiator is not practiced everywhere in the Empire, Egypt and the Middle East in particular where we just chariot races, sports king of antiquity.
• -73 , War slave gladiators
• 27. Fidenae Catastrophe. Taking advantage of the austerity policy of Tiberius , some opportunists are developing tests that do not always have the best safety conditions. The disaster had a profound Fidenae the Romans following the collapse of an amphitheater built in haste a few kilometers from Rome ... Tacitus which tells the tragedy in his journal, cites a figure of 50,000 dead and wounded. Following this disaster, legislation on the organization of sporting events was severely restricted in the Empire.
• 37. Going against the reign of Tiberius , the Roman emperor Caligula (37-41) multiplies the number of chariot races and other sporting events in Rome. He also favors the gladiator who, therefore, is like a great game Roman, like the boxing and chariot race.
• 399. Under pressure from Christian schools closing of gladiators in Rome. This "spectator sport" is hated by the Roman Christians who fail, however, to ban this practice, especially in Rome.
• 418. Last gladiator in Rome, almost a century after the ban enacted by Emperor Constantine.

Vocabulary for gladiatorial

Reconstruction of a fight in Germany in 2005.

• Andabate : heavily armed gladiator who fought blindly without defensive weapons other than his armor, and there is very little information about it, researchers are skeptical of its existence.
• Armatura (plural Armaturae): class of gladiator. The different types were differentiated by the weapons used, but also by fighting techniques.
• Bestiary : gladiator fighting wild beasts, or sentenced to death by exposure to animals.
• a href = "Caternaire" class = "new" title = "Caternaire (non-existent page)"> Caternaire: gladiator fighting not only by group.
• Crupellaire : specificity Gallic Gladiator "heavy."
• Dimachre : Gladiator with a weapon in each hand. He was ambidextrous, so (some writers see him as another name for the scissor).
• Essdaire (essedarius): gladiator who fought from the top of a tank.
• Fortus: a success in Gladiator
• Galerus: metal piece rising to the middle of the cheek that protected the left shoulder of retiarius and part of his face.
• Gladius : sword.
• Hoplomaque (hoplomachus): gladiator armed with a spear and a small round shield facing the mirmillon.
• Ludi games given a fixed date or in special circumstances, to celebrate a birthday or special event.
• Lanista (lanista): owner of a troop of gladiators he rented or sold to an editor wishing to organize a show.
• Laquearius : gladiator weapon was a lace choker.
• Liberatio: a gladiator act that freed from the obligation to fight.
• Manica : protection of leather or metal scales that covered his right arm. The right hand was in turn protected by a leather glove.

A mirmillon.

• Mirmillon or myrmillo (murmillo): Gladiator "heavy" fighting mainly against the Thracian. At first he also fought against the retary, but soon becomes the enemy secutor preferred the latter. It is armed with a gladius , and protected by a helmet , a scutum , a manica , and a short ocrea.
• Munraire (munerarius): editor munus. In imperial Rome, the most important were the emperor and senior magistrates ( lenders , municipal officials , Quaestors , Consuls ) in the province, rich notables or local magistrates.
• Munus (plural munera): gladiatorial combat. The original "gift" offered at funerals.
• Ochre: piece of metal and leather leg protection. Some gladiators were not that short, as secutor the provocator and mirmillon, and other two high as Thracian and hoplomaque.
• Palus: pile on which the gladiators trained.
• Parmularius : gladiator class called Thrace , so named because of the threcidica parma (Parma: "shield").
• Provocator : frame by which any gladiator started his career from the first to third century.
• Retiary (retiarius): Gladiator light, equipped with a trident, a net and a dagger. He was not wearing a helmet, his only protection was the galerus.
• Sagittarius : fighter armed with a bow (its name means "archer").
• Samnite : old style gladiator whose name evokes the fearsome warriors from southern Italy who opposed Rome ⁱⁿ the fourth century BC. AD

the scutum of the Roman legionary.

• Scutum: long rectangular shield & bent.
• Secutor : Opponent's preferred retiarius was a gladiator in the class of scutata, it is considered a combatant "heavy."
• Scissor : "he who decides or size." Armatura rare that appears from the ^first century. The scissor, an "anti-retiarius" is an evolution of secutor. He keeps his helmet but replaces its scutum by a metal sleeve ending in a sharp half-moon. It is also protected by a lorica, a metal scale armor.
• Thrace : Gladiator dagger provides for a light curve, falx supina or supina sica, a small shield and 2 ocreae high.
• Tiro: Gladiator novice.
• Venatio (plural venationes): hunting, animal fighting among themselves or against men, in all its forms.
• Venator: fighter taking part in a venatio. Hunter of wild animals for the arena, often confused with the gladiators and condemned to death "by the wild beasts" (damnatio bestias ad).

Misconceptions

The phrase "Hail, Caesar, Morituri te salvation" can be translated as "Hi, Caesar, those about to die salute you" was not pronounced by the way ritual before gladiators fight to death. In reality this sentence, authentic, was delivered by around 52 soldiers convicted of misconduct, to be beaten to death during a naval battle organized by the Emperor Claudius (-10 - 54) to celebrate the completion of drying of Lake Fucino .

Famous Gladiators

• Crixus
• Spartacus
• nomas
• Fortus
• Verus
• Priscus

In art

In film, the genre of the peplum films which means the action is historically in the ancient world and especially that of ancient Rome. Many epic films have staged daily lives of gladiators and have rebuilt their fighting in the arena. Among the best known include Spartacus (Stanley Kubrick released in 1960), Ben-Hur (William Wyler released in 1959) or Gladiator (Ridley Scott came out in 2000).

References

Notes

References

Notes

Bibliography

• Anne Bernet , The Gladiators, Perrin, 2002
• Eric B. and Teyssier Lopez, Gladiators. Sources in the experiment, Wanderings, 2006
• George Town, the gladiator in the West, French School of Rome, 1981
• Eric Teyssier, Death in the face. The record gladiators, Actes Sud, 2009

Related articles

• Amphitheater
• Coliseum
• Arenas
• Contributions of the Etruscans to the Romans

External Links

• (It) Ars Dimicandi , Italian institute studying the technical and combat equipment antique
• (En) ACTA , Team Gladiator directed by Brice Lopez
• Arnes de Nmes
• (En) LUDUS Argentorate Association replenishment gladiator

• Portal Etruscans
• Ancient Rome portal

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