Etruscan
The Etruscans (from Latin are a people who lived since the Iron Age in Etruria , the territory roughly corresponding to today's Tuscany and northern Lazio , is the center of the Italian peninsula , until their final assimilation as citizens of the Roman Republic , the first century BC. AD , after the passing of the Lex Iulia (-90) during the social war.
The Romans called them "Etrusci" or "Tusci" and the Greeks called them " (Tyrrhnioi, that is to say Tyrrhenians , a name that was given to Wed western coasts of Italy), but they called themselves "Rasna" (syncopated form of "Rasenna).
Summary |
Origin
The origin of the Etruscans has been mentioned since antiquity in different traditions referring to the vast majority from the East Anatolian . Massimo Pallottino , the founder of modern Etruscan and recognized as one of the largest etruscologists, saw the emergence of the Etruscan civilization could not result from a single migration, but was the result of a long process of learning from multiple inputs (both indigenous Villanovan and exogenous , or other Eastern) .
Searches based on analysis of DNA from 80 individuals whose remains were collected from Etruscan tombs (by Alberto Piazza of the University of Turin) concluded that this sample has similarities with the peoples of Anatolia , but that it differs surprisingly DNA present Tuscans (limited to studies of old families of Volterra, Casentino and Murlo ). The elements analyzed from rich tombs belonging to the aristocracy, the assumption would be that it is a ruling elite and not assimilated with the rest of the population then it is probably of Villanovan origin. The Tuscans are the current descendants.
Language
The Etruscan language has so far not been satisfactorily connected to an identified group, and could thus be classified as belonging to a pre-Indo-European or proto-Indo-European: one tends to now say that Etruscan is not for the group of Indo-European languages .
There is a body, a set of inscriptions in the Etruscan language preserved to this day, and duly recorded from most of them from Campania , from Lazio , and Falerii Faliscus, Veii , Caere , Tarquinia and nearby but also to more distant locations, outside of the Etruria , with which it maintained close diplomatic and commercial relations: what became the Roman Gallia Narbonensis (the Narbonne ), but also Corsica The Sardinia and North Africa where Carthage was sovereign.
The only language with which we have attested found a kinship with Etruscan is the one that was spoken in the island of Lemnos before the invasion of Athens ( sixth century BC. ), where tombstones were found, with inscriptions written in characters similar to those used by the Etruscans.
- Alphabet
The Etruscan alphabet was derived from a Greek alphabet and has inspired the Latin alphabet , as their system of numeration with base 10 was used, the more simplified by the Romans.
The table below shows the alphabets Etruscan Archaic and Classical, so the equivalent letters in Greek and Latin alphabets (when they exist) and the reconstructed pronunciation:
| Etruscan archaic | Etruscan Classic | Equivalent Greek | Equivalent Latin | Pronunciation | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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 | |  | A | (to play or divination) which contained the numbers 1 to 6 depending on their symbols (like ours), and in the Etruscan language was written in Z.: u, zal, ci, hu, ma and (for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6). And value of transactions carried by the following: mach zal + = seven; thu + = seven huth ci + = a September
(The characters used here to represent the ancient forms of the figures are taken from various writings by resemblance. The plot of real characters can be directly reproduced here.) Religion Daily life was full of Etruscan religion, so that Livy wrote that they held "more than any other nation in the observance of religious rites . They followed very specific rituals, recorded in the various treaties of the Disciplina Etrusca devoted to divination, cults of founding cities and consecration of temples in the world beyond the grave, to the limits of life and destiny making use the sacred boundary. Etruscan Mythology Main article: Etruscan mythology. The mythology among the Etruscans originated the revelation made to men by the nymph Bego, or Vgoia , and engineering Tages. The first was related to fertility and rituals (recorded in a treaty) depended on it. The second child was going to be a bald-old child, out of a fissure of the earth. This revelation, according to the ancients, was recorded in the corpus of sacred books, as the Disciplina Etrusca.
Funeral Rites Main article: Etruscan funerary rite.  The hut-urn from the Iron Age to the biconical urn Villanovan contemporary to the grave Ziro integrating Canopic Chiusi with its lid anthropomorphic sarcophagi and architectural with mythological reliefs, which then become figurative with lids carved exposing the death or the couple banqueters, all these rites show the duration of the Etruscan civilization since the late prehistoric to Roman times, with the evolution of rites from cremation to burial then turning to incineration. (See also pozzetto graves, tombs and volta camera (in a house) and the tombs tramezzo (to partition)). The graves are mostly grouped in cemeteries. Sites of notable cemeteriesMain 
Secondary
Art Main article: Etruscan art. The art produced by this civilization is very rich. The Etruscans were very skillful artisans and had great artists, painters of frescoes in the tombs, like those of Tarquinia for example, vases, sculptors who made a great masterpieces as bronze in clay. They were also excellent jewelers, skilled metalworkers. You can see their works in major museums in Italy, such as those of Florence , the Vatican or Volterra. But what hinders our modern eye, steeped in Greco-Roman aesthetic "classic" is freedom of deformation of the body of the Etruscan design for expressiveness. Etruscan art is an art of movement. Society Main article: Etruscan League.
Etruscan society was apparently organized and structured social and political life. The Lucumo is at the top of the hierarchy supported by the class oligarchic masters, and finally the slaves and peasants. The Etruria was ruled by 12 kings of the 12 leading city-states (12 lucumon) of the Confederation of Etruria dodecapole: Veii , Cisr ( Caere the Romans ), Tarquinia , Vulcia , Velzna moved Volsinii nova , Clusium , Perusia , Cortona , Arretium , Volaterrae , Vetulonia , Fiesole There were 3 dodecapole (leagues or Mech) 12 lucumon. Etruscan society is divided into two classes: slaves and masters. Archaeological evidence gathered showed no change over the centuries even if we can assume the appearance in the sixth century BC. AD of a middle class composed of artisans and merchants who work for their own account. The state was organized only in appearance, lucumon was run by rich oligarchs who obeyed the slaves and peasants (penestae) and dodcopole by zilath (without real power).
They are a class of Etruscan society, very powerful and very attached to his prerogatives and privileges and held in a kind of senate, the only political assembly of the Etruscan state. The judges choose from among themselves the principles elected annually. These can replace the king, and attended a series of judges, can serve as leaders.
The monks enjoyed a direct participation in government. The little information that we know from the inscriptions.
The family consisted of father and mother often living with children and nephews. This structure is shown in the placement of beds and rooms in the tombs. Certain degrees of kinship are known to us through the entries reported in the tombs: papa (grandfather), ati NaCN (grandmother), clan (son), dry (daughter), tusurhtir (husband), Puia (wife) , thuva (brother) and Papac (nephew).
Main article: Etruscan woman. Etruscan women enjoyed a freedom and a consideration equal to those of humans. She could participate in banquets lying on the same Klina her husband, attend sports games and entertainment. This fact scandalized the Romans who etrusca was synonymous with prostitute (also criticized by the Greeks in the Etruscan Truph ). The woman passed her name to children (especially among the highest class of society). Epigraphs on the woman's name is preceded by the first name (his personal name) as an affirmation of his own individuality within the family group. The names of frquemments woman burned to the dresser and frescoes funeral: Ati Culni, Fasti, Larthia, Ramtha, Tanaquille, Veilia, Velia, Velka. Agriculture Main article: Etruscan agriculture. No direct writing on agriculture Etruscan has reached us, but archeology confirms the good interest of the Etruscans to agriculture, especially as the discovery of a bronze votive , representing a laborer ( IV centuryBC.) from northern Etruria known as "Statuette of the laborer of Arezzo" and kept at the National Etruscan Museum of Villa Giulia . Only the comparison with the rules of agronomists Greek and Roman and analysis of agricultural implements which were found during excavations, or miniature reproduction in Etruscan tombs, or reproduced on vases (a set of tools, and false mostly plows) shed light on the working method of the peasant Etruscan and allow us to deduce the steps and periods to work the earth: plowing, sowing, weeding, soil packed around the roots, hoeing, removal of diseased plants, transport of sheaves wheat threshing, winnowing, crop stubble, put in stacks of straw, stubble burning. Their productions are for cereals, but also the vine which they control the registry, they export wine, olives late, textile fibers for linen and paintings of ships, the meat of their livestock, but their fruit and vegetables are unknown. Industry Main article: Etruscan industry. The industry is primarily Etruscan metallurgical because it relies on a region rich in raw materials, a real "iron Etruria" around Populonia and the island of Elba. Also concerned about their mythology , Velche is the god of fire and metals.
- Diodorus Siculus , V, 13.1 The direct consequence of this industry is the construction of cities, clearing the countryside, digging harbors and many channels (the Po River is navigable for almost its entire course) , and hence trade mainly Seaway. Etruscan Games Main article: Ludi.  Like many other Greek rites and traditions imported by the Etruscans, and passed largely to the Romans, among the most famous games, the ludi , through their representation in the frescoed tombs, scenes of the jars or jade figure nere , objects that have survived. Some notable throwing drops of wine on the kottabos , the askliasmos , a balancing act on a goatskin leather and oiled inflated with air, the game of Empusa , the circus (horses pugilists and Grand Valley Murcia circus, organized by Tarquin the Elder), one of the bullet (or episkyros Harpastum), the Etruscan dice Often these games were sacred rites, celebrations for funeral , such as boxing . ScienceMedicine Main article: Etruscan Medicine. The Etruscans had a good knowledge of medicine ( anatomy and physiology ). Prevention The Etruscans were experts in the field of prevention: they gave great importance to personal hygiene, diet, physical activity and maintenance of their living environment. Medicinal BotanyCare for the Etruscans used:
Minerals
CuresThe Etruscans were followers of the spa. They knew the benefits and properties of thermal water they used in the treatment of many diseases. The hot springs were specialized sanctuaries and the possibility of access to water was done in stages according to rites such as buying appropriate preventive votive representations of anatomical parts to treat ( anatomical ex-votos ), their hanging on the walls of the temple and immersion in water. Theurgy MedicineMedicine Etruscan type theurgical :
The diagnosis of the disease was the result of the call to oracles and prodigies , they also determined the treatment observation:
The ritual consisted of religious supplications, prayers, invocations, processions, sacrifices of animals through the soothsayer. Surgery Among the archaeological pieces found during excavations are many surgical tools and numerous representations in the tombs and funerary. DentistryThe Etruscans were skilled metal fabricators and used the techniques of gold working to create dentures that are still visible today in the skulls found in burial grounds The teeth were to replace the missing maintained by bridges and gold were obtained from animal teeth perfectly adapted to the patient's jaw. OrthopedicOn the skeletons of the necropolis, the etruscologists have found broken limbs, recomposed and re-welded, the patient survived for many years. Expansion and decline Main article: Etruria. The maximum prosperity and expansion of the Etruscan civilization was reached between 600 and 350 BC. JC. In -535 , in fact, the Etruscans, the Carthaginians allies (some historians employ in this connection the expression "Confederation Etruscan-Carthaginian"), won the naval battle of Alalia (Aleria) off the coast of Corsica , the cons Phocaeans Massalia, is the ancient Greek colony of Marseille , in the struggle that pitted for the control of the western Mediterranean. Stopping the Etruscan expansion begins at the end of the century, then comes the decline during the fifth century BC. AD. Rome was the first to free itself from domination by chasing the Etruscan Tarquin to -509 , then the Latins in general it freed with the help of Cumae Aristodemus of the battle of Aricia in -506. Bridgeheads Etruscan and remained isolated in Campania, faded after the naval defeat of Cumae in -474 , and were finally lost -423 during the conquest of Capua with the Samnites. To the north, the invasion Gallic destroyed the Etruscan cities of the plain of Po in the early fifth century BC. AD. In -396 , Rome conquered Veii, thus extending its influence throughout southern Etruria. For over two centuries, sometimes at the initiative of one then the other of their cities, the Etruscans fought against Roman expansion. But at -295 , although allied with the population of Umbria , the Gauls and Samnites Cisalpine, they were defeated at the Battle of Sentinum : in a few decades they were entirely subject to Rome and included by specific treaties, including the "allies" of the Italian peninsula, until their Roman citizenship is granted on the social war of -90 - -88.
Cultural heritage Main article: Contributions of the Etruscans to the Romans.  Despite their loss of political autonomy, the Etruscans continued to perform in the future a great influence in Italy in the cultural, religious and artistic. Rome, which under Augustus had made the seventh Etruria region of Italy is heavily influence, which persisted in institutions, lifestyles, language, tastes, love of luxury, pomp and banquet , dance and music. Etruscan tastes evidenced by the paintings of their graves, although these mainly tell us about the tastes of the affluent, that is to say, the tastes of a minority of the population. The emperor Claude himself was an expert on Etruscan culture. The creative spirit of the Etruscan people (skilled craft and technical depth) re-emerged many centuries later in Tuscany during the Renaissance. The Roman gods, which many believe to be borrowed from the Greeks, were actually borrowed from the Etruscans. So they worshiped the Etruscans Menrva Goddess army Tinia , powerful god of heaven, Turan , the goddess of feminine power, the Tinia Clenar, twin son of Tinia or Hercle son of Tinia who were charged work ... These gods were not represented before the Etruscans not meet the Greeks and their Pantheon. So they resumed Greek iconography to represent their gods, who kept their originality (and they do not have the same stories). The Etruscans were then sent their Pantheon (names and iconography) to Latin (which superimposed the Pantheon in their own deities earlier). That's why the gods are Roman Minerva, Jupiter, Hercules ... not Athena, Zeus, Heracles ... Only Bacchus and Apollo are in direct borrowing Greek Pantheon because there was no pre-existing deity in the equivalent Etruscan tradition. Roman Capitoline Triad (Jupiter / Juno / Minerva), Roman cultural marker that many Roman cities were building a temple to triple cella also evolved from the Etruscans, for whom this type of temple is common. That of Rome was inaugurated, according to tradition, -509 in the first year of the Republic having expelled the Etruscan kings. What can be deduced that he was ordered and built under the rule of the Etruscan city. Other symbols, heavily Roman, as the seat curule Roman senators are directly borrowed from the Etruscan objects of power. It was a folding seat for car, aristocratic privilege. References
Bibliography Main article: Bibliography of the Etruscans.
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