Engraving

In the arts, the term burning is an ambiguous word that means: one technical , the fact of "burn", that is to say, dig or cut material, by extension also means burning a set of techniques used in art or reproduction does not always require burning the material. Finally a "burning" may also be the final work produced by the use of an etching techniques. This work will be etched material itself or else a transposition from the latter. By abuse of language is often confused etching and engraving, the name of print or drawing is reserved for the "image printed or drawn on any media" ^Techniques

Burn is to draw on an object while digging, or cutting through the surface. In most cases, burning is implemented, after inking on a medium such as paper. With the burning Egyptian , the sgraffito and lithography , the etched material is the work itself.

In engraving, there are two or even three major processes:

The embossing

Experts call for size savings:

"The board is cut wherever the print should not have any effect, the drawing is only retained the original level of the surface of the board, he is saved"

- Andr Bguin .

This is the technique used for woodcuts or linocuts.

The intaglio

The intaglio also called intaglio. It is practiced mostly on metal, especially copper and it is called chalcography , but this technique is also practiced on other metals such as zinc , the brass , the steel ...

The burning flat

Some authors add to the previous two categories of engraving or printing plate . This is the case of lithography or monotype that do not require relief, and are therefore not "prints" in the strict sense but are treated as such.

Tools

By refining these categories, we find:

• etching using a manual tool
  The engraving , the drypoint , the woodcut and woodcut , the linocut , the mezzotint , the dotted line , the pyrography , the cameo.

• etching using a manual teeth (called "acid etching")
  The etching , the aquatint , the burning sugar , the way the pencil on soft ground

• mechanical engraving or semi-mechanical
  The stamping , the carborundum , the glass plate

• photomechanical and photochemical etching
  The photogravure or gillotage the electrotyping , the gravure

• etching ink
  The one design , the stencil

• engraving on flat or planographic
  The lithograph , the screen

History

The woodcut is known for a long time in China it is used especially for the growing number of prayer books. But there is no evidence that this technique was introduced in the West by the Silk Road. The experts assume that the technique of woodcut was born either in the Rhine Valley is in Northern Europe, more precisely locate the impossible. The Wood Protat , the oldest wooden matrix, is dated around 1380 : more precisely, it is the fragment of a wooden plank walnut (0.60 x 0.23 cm), which was executed Laives Township Sennecey (Saone et Loire) in Burgundy, which is on one side "The Centurion and the two soldiers" and on the other, "The Angel of the Annunciation . Note also found in the St. Christopher's library Buxheim ... glued to a manuscript of 1423 .

The woodcut above the printing. The etching techniques are closely related to the support, as it should be inexpensive so that the use of an original is worth copying, hence the importance of the introduction of the paper. The evolution of production will therefore follow the woodblock printing development.

The Renaissance

Northern Europe

The woodcut is growing alongside the use of paper around 1400. The engraving on copper spreads from 1430 in the valley of the Rhine and enjoys the techniques of the goldsmith : Schongauer and Drer are goldsmiths training. The woodcut affects a more popular audience while the intaglio is for sponsors more cultured.

It is difficult to attribute before Schongauer works: it means the most often anonymous writers "by the name of their way" . They are:

• Banners with the Master.
• The Master of 1446, the first engraving burin Germany Kulturforum, Berlin).
• The Master of Playing Cards, perhaps more qu'orfvre painter , developed by the shadows of parallel hatching, a sixty works conserved Kupferstichkabinett (Dresden) and the Bibliothque Nationale de France (Paris).
• The Master ES , active between 1450 and 1467 : 313 engravings on various topics. His alphabet is often imitated by other writers.
• Master Book of Reason also called Master of the Amsterdam Cabinet is active between 1465 and 1505. It seems to inaugurate the drypoint on zinc or tin : 80 prints are listed with "pictorial effects and chiaroscuro" .

• Schongauer , active between 1471 and 1491 , is the first to sign his prints by placing a monogram on its plates. He innovated the art of engraving. His works are notable for the predominance of the contour line and the alternating light and dark areas (the Road to Calvary, Fondo Corsini, Rome).

• Israhel Meckenem van (1450-1503) "... is among the most prolific engraver of the period with six hundred engravings which three quarters are copies" . (Jesus and the doctors of the faith, Pinacoteca Nazionale, Bologna)

• Albrecht Drer, trained by Martin Schongauer, will be the most innovative writers of the Rhine.

• Hans Baldung serious wood in 1510. It is distinguished by clarity of line and the dramatic tone of his compositions. He is a portrait of Martin Luther in 1521 (Wild Horses, Fondo Corsini, Rome).

• Urs Graf (1485-1528), a native of Switzerland, is one of the first to use the etching process which is assigned to Olmtz Wenceslas (1496). "Eager to experiment, he took over" so riddled with "new name of the album interrasile" .

• Albrecht Altdorfer (1480-1538), raises the landscape to the status of autonomous artistic entity. It is the first to use the etching to highlight the variations of light.

• Lucas Cranach the Elder (1472-1553) became a painter and printmaker: he invented the art of cameo in two woods. The woodcuts he used for propaganda Lutheran and book illustrations (Rest on the Flight into Egypt, Fondo Corsini, Rome).

• Lucas van Leyden (1494-1533) made a synthesis of Northern and Italianate elements It is also innovative in the art

• Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1525-1569) teaches printmaking in the studio by Hieronymus Cock.

Italy North East

The Venetia , Dalmatia , Emilia , Lombardy ) are the woodcut and copper engraving develop in the first half of the ^fifteenth century : see on this collection of devotional images of the notary Jacopo Rubieri (born in Parma in 1430 ). The Italian Maso Finiguerra found in 1452 , the means to take a test he had a plaque engraved for the Church of St. John in Florence . "The first engravers on copper, following Finiguera are goldsmiths, nielleurs, damasquineurs (...). They are located on the one hand, Tuscany and Veneto Padua (...), forming another large sphere. "

• Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506) reiterates the subjects and the technique Fondo Corsini, Rome). Baccio Baldini (1436-1487) goldsmith and nielleur Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge Mass). Botticelli , Antonio del Pollaiuolo , also known as Pollaiuolo (1432-1498) , Francesco Francia.

• Parmigianino used for the first time copper engraving in Italy around 1530. Francesco Rosselli (1498-1513): representing the "broad way" . Nicoletto da Modena recognizable to the hardness of line and its rigid forms Fondo Corsini, Rome).
• Mocetta Girolamo (1454-1531) working on the chromatic effects and in a monumental style. It is characterized by a thin, sometimes curved. Benedetto Montagna works in the style of Drer : crosshatch lines and curves. It seeks to translate the plates on his sfumato.

• Giulio Campagnola (1482-1515) introduced the technique of stippling. With his burning becomes a kind independent artists.

• Titian (1490-1576): his monumental woodcuts are into 12 blocks, 1549). are made by cross-hatching incisions deep, delicate, closer to what is made to the same period for the etchings "

• Marc-Antoine Raimondi (1470? -1534?). The first prints inspired by the blight, and his work will evolve into a mastery of chiaroscuro (The Dream of Raphael, 1507). His collaboration with Raphael marks the birth of the print translation. "Technically, how to use the chisel is revolutionary because the hatches are accompanied by simple cross-hatching, which create a chiaroscuro much more real with additions of incisions and chisel dots .

• Ugo da Carpi ; mediocre painter but genius writer. It innovates with monochrome or color woodcut (Raphael and his mistress, Albertina, Vienna). It was during his years he experimented with various methods Venice: in 1516 he begged the Senate and the Doge 's method to protect against counterfeiters.

• Parmigianino (1503-1540) dominates the process of etching Fondo Corsini, Rome). The thick lines intersect and give a hazy appearance, enhanced by some adjustments to the drypoint.

Baroque

During this period engraving oscillates between reproduction and gender self that draws much of its inspiration from the debauchery, and parties. Two precursors of the Baroque movement:

• Cornelis Cort (1533-1578), born in Holland, settled permanently in Rome in 1572. He revolutionized the art of engraving by obtaining tonal modulations (Marriage of Cana, Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris), due to variations in shape and thickness of the lines.
• Hendrick Goltzius (1558-1617) known for his etchings, about five hundred prints engraved with a burin Fondo Corsini, Rome).

Italy

With the artists following the Baroque affirmed in both subjects in art:

• Federico Barocci Barocci said (1528? -1612) combines etching and engraving Fondo Corsini, Rome). "The Baroche apply a wax polish, after the first bite on the part of the landscape consists of fine lines, almost calligraphic. He gives up and several passages in which acid dig furrows in the matrix. The result, called to process multiple bites, is totally revolutionary. In addition, a special way to burn: the parallels intersect the cross in various directions, with additions of dots, for the effects of vibrating light "
• Agostino Carracci (1557-1602) is considered one of the greatest writers of the ^seventeenth century Italian in seven copperplate engravings, 1579). The chisel work is reminiscent of Cort and Goltzius. From 1590, he began his etchings: Intermezzi in honor of the wedding of Ferdinando de 'Medici and Christine of Lorraine.
• Jusepe de Ribera is considered a great master of engraving of XVII ^century , yet its production is spread over a very short period of time (11616-1630). His area of expertise is the etching with a predominance of irregular features (The Poet, 1620, Rome, ING).
• Stefano della Bella (1610-1644) was an impressive production: over a thousand prints, most of which are etchings embellished with chisels and drypoint c.1648).
• Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione (1609-1665) has always been considered a self-taught. "His technical writer focuses on the line ... It would be the inventor of the monotype technique may be related to his attempts to create light effects " . Castiglione was using the non -design background but black on white monotype (Allegory of the Eucharist) .

Northern Europe

Antwerp and Flanders are true artists incubators; they will almost all travel to Italy to perfect their technique. Among them we find:

• Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640). "He has the great merit of having founded the school of the cutters in Antwerp ... For him, the print is a means of dissemination and knowledge ... It uses essentially the engraving as a means of translation " . Two prints were the inclusion of P. Paul Rubens fecit (Old Woman by Candlelight, Rome, Fondo Corsini).
• Cristoffel Jegher (1596-1652) is the only specialist of the woodcut in the ^seventeenth century Waddesdon Manor, Buckinghamshire).
• Pieter Claesz Soutman (1580-1657) developed the technique of stippling chisel which allows you to create chiaroscuro.
• Hercules Seghers (c.1590-1638) invents colored etching and aquatint in black patent.
• Rembrandt van Rijn (1631-1669) first uses etching and drypoint. In a last time he mixes the two techniques and plays with the effects of paper (or parchment paper Japan).

In France

• Lorrain Jacques Callot (1592? -1635), formed in Florence , develops strong water in major series torture, He wants to exploit the maximum potential of the technique and "he decided to replace the Florentine master cabinetmakers, the traditional of etchers. The surface expands, the details appear in large prospects that create the illusion of a three-dimensional space. "
• Abraham Bosse (1604-1676), theoretician of the engraving, is the archetype of the French Baroque recorder. His book is an amount of etching techniques of the time: everything is described carefully since "how to polish mol" through "how to handle stalls" and "use of water- strong, to finish with "how to print intaglio plates entire way to build the press" .

The Neoclassicism

The enthusiasm of collectors of the eighteenth ^century to the views of Italian landscapes directs the production of such writers Vanvitelli (1653-1736), Giuseppe Vasi (1710-1782), Luca Carlevarijs (1663-1730), Marco Ricci (1617-1730 ). The latter in his etchings will introduce the tiny, jagged lines to reflect the effects of light and movement of foliage.

• Giovanni Antonio Canal called (1697-1768) tries to translate his etchings in the vibrations of light 1763, Windsor Castle, Royal Collection).
• The Tiepolo ', Giambattista (1696-1770) and his son Giandomenico (1727-1804), technicians are fabulous: Hatch, cons-size curves parallel to the corrugations, pointillism, parallel lines.
• The workshop of Giuseppe Wagner (1706-1786) is important both in terms of artists who attend (Brustolon, Baratti, Zucchi ...), that new techniques will be developed: especially nice way to burn chisel with a soft tip can produce a clean line and deep.
• Giovanni Battista Piranesi said (1720-1778).

The illustrations of the Encyclopedia of Diderot and D'Alembert show how this art helped to popularize the culture.

In the eighteenth ^century, engraving on copper in its various forms (intaglio, etching, etc.) predominates. The woodcut is confined to the popular imagination.

The Modern Era

"The great period of translation of works of the artists most famous ends with neoclassicism" . Two revolutions will occur at the end of this century, that have a major impact throughout the ^nineteenth century.

On the one hand, the invention of lithography by Aloys Senefelder. Lithography, based on a principle entirely new (the antagonism water-oil ink, not relief), you can draw directly without having to learn a technique of etching difficult. Many painters and illustrators will have access to the print and widely circulated in Germany, Italy, France and England.

On the other hand, the Englishman Thomas Bewick brings back the day the woodcut , by developing woodcut (or . The wood is then carved with chisels, like copper, which allows all its subtleties, and has the advantage of being a technical highlight: you can print on a printing press prints, along with the text. Introduced in France by Charles Thompson to 1818 , this technique is used universally by the press and publishing. Hundreds of writers, which are detached from big names, like Heliodorus Pisan , Francis Pannemaker and son, Hippolytus Lavoignat , working daily to interpret the works of great illustrators like Daumier , Gustave Dor , Grandville , among others. With the growth of the press, wood engraving is becoming a breeding industry, served by technical virtuosos, but often lacks creativity.

Attempts to return to original woodcut, with writers such as Auguste Lepere , arrives too late in the late ^nineteenth century, the etching being supplanted by techniques based on the photograph ( halftone ).

The creation of companies comprising the writers is one of the important events in the second half of the nineteenth century: Society of Etchers in 1862 , Society of Painter-printmakers in 1889. The model is the Society of Engravers founded in London in 1802.

The Barbizon School was the initiator of the journal Etching, and experimenting with new techniques such as shot-glass . Millet and Corot will adopt this new technique Corot, Milano, 1855, A. Bertarelli). rediscovers Antonio Fontanesi etching of invention: it uses the bite repeatedly (light effects). It also uses the clich-verre.

Giovanni Fattori (1825-1908) is one of the great masters of etching, which will tell Baudelaire : "Among the expressions of visual art, etching is the one that comes closest to the literary expression and which is best made for the spontaneous man " .

Whistler (1834-1903) was introduced to etching with Fantin-Latour , Courbet , and Legros. It begins by etching and then worked in drypoint 1871 (Family Portrait Leyland). Francis Hayden (1818-1910), will be mixing techniques to translate the effects of atmosphere: drypoint, burnisher, etching aquatint.

The Impressionists like Manet etching and lithography will be used to translate an atmosphere Paris, Bibliothque Nationale). Degas will do so by adding the monotype 1885, Paris, Library of Art and Archaeology). Pissarro is more fond of woodcut not forget Pierre Renoir , Paul Cezanne , Vincent van Gogh.

Paul Gauguin (1848-1903) has a predilection for the woodcut 1893, Chicago Art Institute).

Freed from its constraints utilities, burning back to a pure artistic field, recovering and modernizing the traditional techniques. The ^twentieth century rediscovered wood wire, its simplicity and expressive, with artists like Felix Vallotton Lausanne, gallery Vallotton) and Edvard Munch.

Artists movement Die Brcke and the Blaue Reiter will be attracted by the woodcut where they can play with the simplification of forms.

Matisse experimented all the techniques: woodcut, etching, drypoint 1900), lithography 1925, Bern, EWK collection), aquatint and linocut.

Giorgio Morandi (1890-1964) "manages to combine a light-generating form, a volume that builds plastic and a color that makes it stand out by standing as a tone or" color position " . Master stroke , single bite by bite to allow the Dutch to transcribe the waves of light.

Picasso (1881-1973) will burn a lot not less than two thousand known works. Initiated in 1933 by Roger Lacourire chisel and aquatint with sugar, it will create the Suite Vollard. He tries all the methods and renews: different states show a perfectionist artist.

Georges Gimel (1898-1962) in 1921 made numerous wood-engraved with a burin and aquatints salt for illustrations: preface by Andr Coeuroy portrait of Deodat Sverac. Selected by the National Library of France (FRBNF38643332). It develops woodcuts with which it executes printed fabrics for decorating and haute couture.

The use of new materials and new processes , especially in the works of Jean Fautrier , Raoul Ubac , Johnny Friedlaender , Stanley Hayter , Henri-Georges Adam , Roger Vieillard, Marcel Fiorini , Louttre.B or Pierre Courtin , releases burning of any subordination to the drawing or painting, and engaging it in recognition of its specific means, ensures complete autonomy of expression. Workshops such as burning of Hayter (workshop 17), Jolle Serve (workshop 63), drawing workshop as Lacourire-Frlaut will participate in the revival of printmaking. Mohlitz is reintroducing the chisel, Avati mezzotint, drypoint Andr Bguin and many artists young and old interested in the variety of printmaking techniques and their combinations.

The etching is considered, with the architecture , the painting , the sculpture , the music and dance , as one of the fine arts.

Bibliography

• J. Adhemar, The Burning of the origins to the present day, Paris, Somogy, 1979
• A. Bguin, technical dictionary of printmaking, tA-F, Gl, MZ, Brussels, 1977
• JE. Bersier, The Burning, Paris, Berger-Levrault, 1976
• A. Bosse, Traite ways of intaglio engraving, Paris, 1645
• Diderot and d'Alembert Encyclopedia, article "Intaglio Printing", 1751-1780
• AM Hind, A History of Engraving and Echting, London, 1923
• A. Krejci, Techniques of printmaking, Grunder, 1983
• M. Melot, A. Griffiths, RS Field, A. Bguin, Printmaking, Skira, 1981
• G. Mariani, The calcografiche tecniche di diretta incisione, Rome, 2001
• MC Paoluzzi, engraving, Solar, 2004
• J. Hare, The French School of Engraving, seventeenth century Paris, La Renaissance book, nd.
• Heinrich Rumpel, The woodcut, Geneva, Bonvent Publishing, 1972
• Remi Blachon, The Woodcut in the nineteenth century, the age of standing timber, Paris, Les Editions de l'Amateur, 2001 ( ISBN 2-85917-332-3 )

Notes

External link

• (En) The Beautiful Occupation, burning four centuries in Normandy 2010. Archives Branch of Calvados.
• (Ru) * An extensive collection of print

• Gateway to the History of Art