Communication
Communication (often abbreviated com) is the action, the act of communicating, establishing relationships with others, to convey something to someone, all means and techniques for disseminating a message to an audience more or less broad and heterogeneous and action for someone, a business information and promote its activities to the public, maintain its image, by any process media.
It affects both humans (interpersonal communication, groupal ...) the animal and plant (communication intra-or inter-species) or machine (telecommunications, new technologies and their hybrids ...), : Human-animal, human-technology ... It's actually a science shared by several disciplines who do not respond to a single definition.
And if everyone agrees to define it as a process, the views differ as to describe this process.
- One stream of thought, gathered behind the "Computer Science and Communication," proposes an approach to communication that focuses on the transmission of information. He is interested both in human-computer interaction at the psychological process of transmission of knowledge (with the support of cognitive science).
- A second current, driven by psychology, is interested primarily in interpersonal communication (dual, triad or in groups). Communication is then regarded as a complex system that takes into account everything that happens when individuals interact and involves both cognitive, affective and unconscious. In this context, we consider that the information transmitted is always multiple, the transmission of information is only part of the communication process and that different levels of meaning simultaneously circulate.
- Finally, a third stream, derived from psychoanalysis, focuses on the intra-psychic communication.
Communication concept
The image that we give must be confirmed by others. The fact that the role, status and position of the actors are well identified allows callers to recognize themselves in a position of social , avoid ill-understood, conflicts, and ensure credibility. The situational identity of the speaker is identifiable in the utterance.
For a company , the brand is the identity of the company perceived by its stakeholders. Any damage to the brand is a reputation risk , detrimental to the smooth running of the company , its credibility , and trust it receives from its customers.
Summary |
A skilled communication can facilitate the process of influence , legal or not. The phenomenon of development NGOs in the context of globalization is illustrative in this regard. The sovereignty and independence of States can be threatened by the uncontrolled proliferation of messages in open source.
Communication is an essential component of diplomacy and the exercise of sovereignty of a State. When a head of state or representative of a government speaks at an international meeting, a summit of the Earth , an international conference on a topic of global concern ( trade , management water, health , biodiversity ), communication is essential in terms of perception of authority.
The use of French or the English daily is particularly an issue in the relationship Quebec - Canada.
More often it is recognized that cultural and economic influence of a country is perceived by the influence and use of language. Note therefore the strong influence of English and Chinese now. But at the time of Louis XIV , the language of diplomacy and the nobility was French.
A dynamic territory
The psychic and physical space (intimate) must be protected. In any organization , everyone defends his space and prevents intrusions unjustified.
In the economic territory, for the organization of centers of expertise for example, communication is established between the organizations very different decentralized services of States in the regions (Lnder. ..), regional councils , regional branches of industry groups , Small and medium businesses , chambers of commerce and industry , universities and high schools , study center and research.
In order to understand with all the details of language , it is often preferable to regional or local level in all cases to use the mother tongue , even to use a lingua franca in international trips.
The need for language
We have seen in the history , the importance that took the language of communication. Translations into several vernacular languages of the Book of Wonders of the World of Jean de Mandeville had a considerable impact on fourteenth and fifteenth century the explorers (including Christopher Columbus ), perhaps more than the world's Travels recounting trips of Marco Polo. The Edict of Villers-Cotterets ( Francis I , 1539 ) allowed the sovereign acts disseminate administrative and legal in another official language of communication.
We have also seen the tremendous impact that passed in the seventeenth century , some works written in French , in areas that were still reserved for the Latin : the Utopia of Thomas More , the Discourse on Method of Descartes ( 1637 ) , the Provincial Letters of Pascal ( 1656 ). In eighteenth and nineteenth centuries , the Bible Sacy had a tremendous impact on literature. In the eighteenth century , during the European communicate in French.
The English is now widely used for communication in many fields (computer science, business, science, essentially). Languages have very different communication status: the six official languages of the UN are English, the Spanish , the French , the Russian , the Arabic and Chinese.
Nevertheless, the native languages are the languages of communication locally, especially in Europe, which established a policy on this point.
Languages are not necessarily spoken. They can also be gestural. The French sign language allows for example to communicate with the deaf and non-hearing. It is a separate language, and who knows his own evolution. In Quebec it is the American Sign Language.
Refer to Sign Language.
A networking with telecommunication tools
Communication is a must to enter into relationship with others.
At this point, we should note the importance of means of telecommunications -based techniques optical , electrical and electronic.
As to the appearance of this latter type of media since the nineteenth century , and with the exception of the telegraph electric (from 1838 ) and telephone (elementary network transceiver), the media based on techniques electronic ( radio , television ), used since the Second World War , offered no opportunity for feedback important.
With the latest generation of tools for telecommunications electronics , the feedback becomes easier, and messages have greatly enriched ( documents , images ). The electronic messaging , the internet ... can reach groups of people, and make a real group communication.
A message to send
The technical aspects of the communication must hide the key: communication is intended to convey a message.
The advent of the Internet since the 1960s has led to various studies by philosophers and sociologists. Among these studies, we note that of Pierre Musso and Philippe Breton , which, in somewhat different arguments, have the same diagnosis: communication tends to be manipulated by the tools of telecommunications and information technology. The idea is that there is a belief that we communicate well because it has sophisticated technical means (the latest version of the software, mobile ...). Pierre Musso note that this belief was based on the philosophy of networks , a sort of pseudo-"religion" would be the resurgence of the philosophy of Saint-Simon (see Claude Henri de Rouvroy, comte de Saint-Simon ), based on the principle of universal gravitation.
In fact, on the merits, although the paper seeks to answer one of the objectives include:
- passing an information , a knowledge , or emotion ;
- create a standard for common understanding;
- create a relationship to interact frequently, or restart the dialogue ;
- get influence to induce the other to act according to his will;
- give its identity , its personality to others, to be known.
This is referred to issues of communication. These issues are related to different functions of the message (see the concepts of Roman Jakobson ).
We see that a communication focuses too much on technology can obscure the risks inherent in communication.
Main types of communication
The science of communication encompasses a vast field that can be divided into several levels Interpersonal Communication The interpersonal communication is based on the exchange 1 transmitter - 1 receiver. Between humans is the basis for life in society. It is generally accepted that the understanding is better, but the number of receivers is limited to one person. The feedback is almost systematic. These include the telephone , the oral conversation ... But the communication is oral. She is also nonverbal. (See below). Communication is therefore also by the body. Thus it will be rather non-verbal or unspoken. Nonverbal communication can be para-verbal, that is to say that accompanies vocalization. So when the speaker says he must go right and he moves his hand in that direction, it's a case of verbal communication para. Sit back in a sign of protection is also a non-verbal communication. But here it will be to say: "I am hiding behind my ideas leave me alone." Posture and facial expressions are part of the communication. Gestures may convey a message as stronger, more pronounced than what is said. The tone of a message is also a form of non-verbal. It is this basic, non-verbal, which defines for example the game is called an actor in theater. It is sometimes said that communication is holistic - that is to say, it involves the whole person - to emphasize the importance of the environment, environmental interference in communication. For Palo Alto, "we can not not communicate." Whether it be quiet or that we speak, everything is communication. Our gestures, our posture, our facial expressions, our way of being, our way of saying, the way we do not say all these things "talk" to our receiver. Communication is also a form of manipulation. Indeed, we often communicate to manipulate, modify the environment or the behavior of others. It was formalized as the last two centuries. The Mass Communication is an issuer (or a set of transmitters linked together) addressing all receivers available. Here, understanding is seen as less good, because the noise is loud, but many more receivers. She rarely has a feedback , or very slow (we have seen campaigns deemed annoying by consumers, such as diapers, lead to declines in sales of the advertised product). This type of communication has been conceptualized with the emergence of the concepts of mass organization which four elements are the standardization , the Fordism , the Taylorism and advertising ... The emergence of the Internet makes the feedback possible. In France , the state binds significantly Culture and Communication , entrusting them to the same department. Formerly there were Ministries of Propaganda. One of the books considered the founder of the concept of "mass", though questionable in its content and its objectivity, is Crowd Psychology (1895) psychopathologists of Gustave Le Bon. The hidden persuaders, the work of Vance Packard, shows what about the science of manipulation was already well advanced in 1957. Return to Brave New World, Aldous Huxley, is in the same direction. The group communication from more than one transmitter addressing a class of individuals defined by a message (communication) focused on their understanding and culture specific. It's one that came with the forms of modern culture , often focus on mass culture ( consumerism ), the advertising is targeted the most recent and most obvious. The effects of group communication are between those of interpersonal communication and of mass communication. Group communication is as complex and multifaceted as it is related to group size, group function, and personality of the members who compose it. We can also incorporate this concept in internal communication to an entity. Groups can then be categories of staff, individuals within a given service, etc.. We can also incorporate this concept to an external partner or targeted to certain stakeholders of the entity. On communication as a science, some concepts have been identified by the different communication models explained below. During the 1980s , SH Chaffee and CR Berger proposed a general definition which remains today a known base of communication science: "Science of Communication seeks to understand the production, processing and effects of symbols and systems signs by theories analyzable, containing lawful generalizations that can explain the phenomena associated with the production, treatment and effects. " (Translated from English) A verbal communication is made to sign language. These signs give a body called language , or more generally language , but linguists come to distinguish between language and speech. Is called " nonverbal "communication based on the implicit understanding of signs not expressed by language : the art , the music , the kinesthetic , the colors or the clothes or the smell. These signs, their assembly and their understanding or interpretation are overwhelmingly dependent on culture. But first we define non-verbal communication through the body, posture, gestures, or different facial expressions. This distinction verbal / nonverbal is not always easy to do. The verbal word can also be understood as expressed verbally (Oxford Dictionary). We then speak of oral communication , as opposed to written communication. A communication is etched in a context. It can occur at any given moment in a given place, and towards a situation, an event given. This whole environment , which is not part of the communication itself, but accompanying this communication, is called context. The environment may generate noise , or be a source of interference. The philosophy of language focuses on the context and the language specified in the context of a sentence : see context (linguistic). The context is involved in the issues mentioned above: culture , change media , language , sovereignty , identity , strength territories , networking. Network is called a set of actors of economic agents , nodes, or places of communication through which messages flow. The information is concentrated and redistributes. These are the alumni networks of large schools , to universities , to associations , to NGOs , the research centers , government agencies or simply individuals with common interests ... Seen in the case of companies: Extended Enterprise. Technically Transport networks ( roads , canals , railways ), telecommunications networks and computer ( telegraph , telephone , web ) have grown considerably over the past two centuries. Also on the subject: Telecommunications , semaphore , telegraph , telephone. Informal interactions It was discovered in 1960 that the spread of automatic elevators, which removed the boys a lift, removed a major hub of informal communication between the stages of a business (as the elevator boy knew everybody and everybody spoke). This role has been partially replaced by coffee corners now regarded as indispensable in offices and places of trade often large informal. A communication that can last over time (the message is not deleted when it is sent) is called "timeless." For example, a message written in a book is intemporel.Cette concept is related to the contact between the communicating entities. An ephemeral message is said, "time". For example, an oral discussion is ephemeral, temporal. Communication is especially taught in engineering schools. In space, a communication may be: This concept is linked to the expression of contact between the entities communicate. The code (information) is a concept often highlighted in the vision mechanistic communication. Yet it is rarely appropriate, that applies only to situations very hierarchical and authoritarian: man-machine interface , human-animal relations, etc.. By extension and a pessimistic way, the notion of code is often used for the study of human relations. In this simplified framework, to communicate, the transmitter and receiver must have a code common. The communication is then characterized mainly by the use of a code establishing correspondence between a sign and its meaning to be common to the interlocutors. The lack of common code between transmitter and receiver is one of the sources of failures of communication, each of which can be assumed that the other has his code, without this being the case: In all these examples, the notion of code explains the misunderstanding between humans, but the concept does not explain understanding. But the situations are common where the default code does not bring disaster on the contrary, relations deaf-hearing, blind, seeing relationships, relationships between foreigners without common words, etc.. Between humans, we can always try to make themselves understood; so try "to comprise" a computer that detects a syntax error in the order sent. No, decidedly, the code is a concept too obvious to be used without tweezers. Communication is to transmit a message to establish a contact. The establishment of contact has some risks , especially when "opening" and "closure" of the communication. The risk of intrusion , non-response, blocking and dropout actually exist. This is the subject of confidentiality in a href = "% C3% S A9curit% C3% A9_de_l% 27information" title = "Information Security"> information security, it is called the message. This term denotes anything that makes communication possible or easier unrelated content of the communication itself. Wait for dial tone, ask the caller to repeat, spell his name, tacitly agree on when a communication will be considered completed part of the protocols. The implementation of a protocol requires the definition of standards developed. See also: The message of feedback (or feedback , or feedback message in English), is the message, verbal or non-response returned by the receiver to the transmitter. When there is talk of two-way communication. His issues are distinguishable from those of the message which it is derived. The feedback can be used, as appropriate, to: The concept of feedback (feedback) is derived from the work of Norbert Wiener on cybernetics (Control and Cybernetics gold Communication in the Man and the Machine ( 1948 ) and Cybernetics and Society ( 1950 )). It seems to work after having been held in the United States during World War II to convert the American industry in war industry (1941-1942). It is the technological leap of the transition from punched cards to the computer , and the appearance of the first computers based on technology electronics. This concept has enabled researchers in Humanities to move from a linear (unidirectional) communication, design of a circular process (bidirectional). We can distinguish two forms according to Wiener feedback: These two forms of feedback ensures the message is received. The third case, in which feedback is not expressed (nil), creates a barrier to communication: you do not even know if the message was received or not. The feedback loop has led to define theoretical models and systemic information system (at the operational, organizational, decision making). Many communication theorists have tried to conceptualize what a "communication". This is not an exhaustive list here, as many models are complementary. We try to give a general development by providing the best known of these models and the contribution they have induced. The model of Claude Shannon and Weaver Model Lasswell Harold Dwight Lasswell , a political scientist and an American psychiatrist, has made a name in the modeling of mass communication. For him, it is to describe through the questions: "Who says what, through what channel to whom and with what effect? . It is the strict recovery of the five questions that Quintilian addressed to any Apprenticeship rhetorician. This model conceives of communication as a process of influence and persuasion , very close to the advertising. This model goes beyond the mere transmission of the message (although it remains centered) and in particular consider the concepts of communication steps, the ability of multiple transmitters and receivers and purpose of a communication (its stake ). Yet it is criticized on the same basis as criticism against the model of Claude Shannon and Weaver. Indeed he sees communication as a relationship of authority and persuasion. And it ignores the message of feedback and the notions of psychology and sociology on both sides of the relationship of communication. The receiver is always considered as a liability, which is still inaccurate, since there is usually interaction between the transmitter and receiver, which is not included in this model. One of his major works - Propaganda Technique in the World War ( 1927 ) - is part of reference works in the use of propaganda in the Second World War. His vision authoritarian or authoritarian communication, earned him many enemies, even today. This model is antithetical to bind the work of the famous Marshall McLuhan (The Gutenberg Galaxy, 1967 ) and Rgis Debray (Treaty of mediology, 1991 ) This alternative model, based on language , is proposed by Roman Jakobson ( 1896 - 1982 ). This linguist develops a Russian point of view focuses not on the transmission of a message but the message itself, thus avoiding the dangers of manipulation technique (see it on this philosophy of networks ). It is composed of six factors. At each of these factors is a function of the linked message , made explicit by Jakobson. Note the appearance or reappearance of the last three concepts ( context , code, contact ) that complement the great overview on what a communication. Some factors may be considered as agents of communication (receiver) on the context, see Article perception of the environment. This work is linked to the impetus of linguistics Ferdinand de Saussure , Shannon and Weaver conceptual, philosophical and John L. Austin. George Gerbner , a sociologist of the 1950s , had the ambition to formulate a general model of communication. It describes in 1956 a much more complex than previous ones. His model focuses on two key proposals: The special feature of this model is that it can be applied to various forms of communication depending on context. It should be an act of interpersonal communication between two people but also more complex process of mass communication. Theodore M. Newcomb , 1953, presented the triangular model and ABX became the first to introduce the role of communication in the social relationship. Newcomb notes from two dimensions of social relations. The attitude, which is the quality of emotional bond, and the union which is the specificity of the link. Through these two analytical frameworks, it will look at the balance or imbalance of a social relationship. A relationship is said to be balanced when attitudes have the same orientation. His hypothesis is that we are all looking for balance in the communication situation. If not achieved, then either we will want to reduce this imbalance, or break the relationship. Newcomb is therefore concerned with the notion of similarity in their possession, their association or otherwise. We also noted that relationships are formed generally around an object (topic of conversation, one person, one common passion ...). Thereafter he exhibited eight patterns of relationships, including 4 models and 4 models balanced unbalanced. Newcomb's model raises the essential facts under which any communication situation brings together individuals characterized by attitudes, motives, and that any communication situation can be a way to change a relationship. Communication is here understood as a dynamic and complex and not mechanical. In this model is considered the first human individuals belonging to groups. The issuer renamed communicator and the receiver are distributed in primary groups (family, community, small groups ...) sociological. These groups would influence the way of seeing, thinking and judging from their members. And these groups operate in a social context which they depend. This model of Matilda White Riley and John White Riley introduces new concepts, including that of context and belonging to a group, related to sociology. Moreover, this model is the first to take into account the notion of a feedback loop between the transmitter and receiver. This shows that there is reciprocity and inter-influence between individuals. This model is the source of the work on group communication. Science related to Communication Authors in the relevant field Stories and major portals 
Mass Communication
We are talking about mass media or "Mass media". These include the radio , the radio and television. The lack of response may in fact an ideal tool of propaganda , which stressed repeatedly Georges Bernanos. Group Communication
Science Information and Communication
The distinction between verbal and nonverbal communication
The writing , the sign language , the voices are media , means of communicating ... The art of conceptualizing this message in a language to minimize interference is called rhetoric. Aristotle and Cicero were the theorists of rhetoric , which became one of the seven liberal arts in the Middle Ages. The communication contexts
Networks
The temporality
Localization
Code
Transmission
The communication protocol
Feedback
Communication models
Shannon and Weaver Model
Model Jakobson
Model Gerbner
Model Newcomb
Model of Matilda and John Riley
References
See also
Related articles
Bibliography
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