Calakmul (which also spelled Kalakmul, as well as other less common variants) is the modern name of one of the oldest and most powerful cities Maya discovered in the lowlands . In ancient times the heart of the city was known by the name of Ox Te 'tuun . This powerful Mayan city was inhabited for over a millennium, before being swallowed by the jungle after being abandoned.

At its peak, operated a vast Calakmul area marked by the widespread registration of its emblem-glyph , which is characterized by the sign of the serpent's head , which reads Kaan . Calakmul was the seat of what was called the Kingdom of the Serpent . This Kingdom of the Serpent reigned as Tikal , during the greater part of the classical period. It is estimated that Calakmul itself had a population of 50,000 people and controlled the towns located at a distance of up to 150 km . There are 6,750 ancient structures identified at Calakmul, the largest of which is the great pyramid of the site. Structure 2 has more than 45 meters high, making it one of the tallest pyramids of the Maya civilization. Four graves have been located in the pyramid. Like many temples and pyramids of Mesoamerica , the pyramid at Calakmul was expanded based on the existing church to reach its current size . The area of the central monument of the Maya architecture is about 2 square kilometers and the entire site, covered essentially a dense residential housing is about 20 km .

Rediscovery by aerial exploration by biologist Cyrus Longworth Lundell of the Mexican operating Chicle 29 December 1931 , its existence has been reported to Sylvanus Morley of the Carnegie Institution at Chichen Itza in March 1932. According to Lundell, who named the site, "" ca "in Maya means" two "," ak "means" next "and" multiple "means an artificial hill or pyramid, so that" Calakmul "is the "City of Two Adjacent Pyramids'."

Location

Calakmul is located in the Mexican state of Campeche in the southern part of Mexico, about 35 km north of the border with Guatemala and 38 km north of the ruins of El Mirador . The ruins of El Tintal are located 68 km southwest of Calakmul and were related to both El Mirador and Calakmul itself by a causeway . Calakmul was located about 20 km south of the existing town of Oxpemul and about 25 km southwest of La Mueca . The city is located about 35 m above a large marsh area located to the west , known as El Laberinto bajo (a word Spanish in the region used to designate an area of low altitude comprised of seasonal marsh) . This marsh is approximately 34 km x 8 km and is an important source of water during the rainy season . The bajo is connected to a sophisticated system of water control structures including both natural and artificial features such as gullies and canals that surrounded an area of about 22 km2 around the center of the site, an area considered the heart Calakmul . The location of Calakmul beside a bajo provides two advantages: the fertile lands along the marshes and access to a pool of abundant nodules of flint . The city is situated on a natural promontory formed by a dome limestone of 35 m in height rising above the surrounding plains . This dome was artificially leveled by the Maya . During the Preclassic period and classical habitat was concentrated at the edge of El Laberinto bajo, during the classic period structures have also been built on high ground and the small islands of the marsh where the flint was worked .

In the early twenty-first ^century , the area around Calakmul is still covered by dense forest . During the first millennium AD the region received moderate rain and fair, although there was less surface water available to the south, Guatemala .

Population and extension

At its peak during the Late Classic period is estimated that the city had a population of about 50,000 inhabitants and covered an area of over 70 km2. The city was the capital of a large regional state with an area of about 13000 km2 . During the Late Classic population of the city has considerably decreased and the rural population has dropped to 10% of its previous level .

The population density in Calakmul during the Late Classic period was estimated at 1000KM within the site and 420/km at the periphery (an area of 122 km2.) Calakmul was a true center urban center, not just a housing for the elite surrounded by residences of commoners .

The Glyph-emblem of Calakmul

The kingdom of Calakmul twenty centers controlled side, among whom were large cities like La Mueca, Naachtun , Sasilha , and Oxpemul Uxul . The total population of these secondary centers was estimated at 200,000 inhabitants . The Kingdom also included a large number of tertiary and quaternary sites, mostly relatively small and composed of a number of groups of buildings arranged around a place, but there were also large rural sites located on ridges along the edges of bajos that included temples, palaces and stelae . The total rural population of the kingdom (Regional State of 13000 km2) was estimated at 1.5 million people . If we add the population of the city of Calakmul itself, it reached 1.75 million people during the Late Classic .

The Glyph-emblem of Calakmul had greater dissemination area as that of any other Maya city. The glyph is also found in the hieroglyphic texts more frequently than any other emblem-glyph , including that of Tikal . The central site of Calakmul was known in antiquity under the name of Ox Te 'tuun may be due to the triadic pyramid structure of 2 .

Tikal and Calakmul

The history of the Classic Maya civilization was dominated by the rivalry between hostile alliances of Calakmul and Tikal (photo)

The history of the Classic Maya period is dominated by the rivalry between Tikal and Calakmul, likened to a struggle between two superpowers Maya . During periods more remote the trend was the dominance of one city's largest and during the Classic period Tikal former evolved to that position after the period of hegemony of El Mirador in the late Preclassic period and that of Nakba during the Middle Preclassic period . However Calakmul was a rival city to Tikal with equivalent resources who challenged his supremacy and was embarking on a strategy of encirclement by using its own network of allies . From the second half of the ^sixth century AD until the late ^seventh century Calakmul has reached a higher level, even though she could not overcome completely the power of Tikal and was able to take precedence over his great rival in a decisive battle that took place in 695 AD . Half a century later, Tikal has also won major victories over the most important allies of Calakmul . Finally, both cities have both died during the collapse of Classic Maya civilization .

The great rivalry between these two cities may have been based on other reason than just competition for access to resources. Their dynastic histories show different origins and the intense competition between the two powers may have had ideological underpinnings. Calakmul dynasty seems outcome of El Mirador , the largest city in the Preclassic period, while the dynasty of Tikal has been deeply marked by the intervention of the distant metropolis of central Mexico, Teotihuacan . With few exceptions The monuments of Tikal and those of its allies attach great importance to kings only male while the monuments of Calakmul and its allies gave more importance to the female line and often communist rule of the king and the Queen .

Kings of Calakmul

The kings of Calakmul were known to k'uhul kan ajawob (Lords of the Kingdom of the Serpent God) . This list is flawed, because the archaeological data are incomplete. All dates are located in our era.

Stela 51, dated 731 , representing Yuknoom Took 'K'awiil, one of the best preserved site .

(Names in quotes are provisional nicknames based on their glyph staff for kings whose name in Maya has not yet been definitively deciphered phonetically)

The very incomplete list due to the poor quality of local stone which has made many entries illisbles. (The name of Yuknoom Ch'een I, for example, is known to us only by an inscription from another Mayan site, Dzibanch )

History

Calakmul has a long history of human occupation and excavations have provided the remains of settlements from the Middle Preclassic period to the Postclassic period . The network of roads linking the cities of Calakmul, El Mirador , in Nakbe and El Tintal suggests the existence of strong political links between the four cities that may find their origin in the Preclassic period, when Calakmul and El Mirador were all two major cities, and has continued during the classical period when Calakmul itself was the most powerful city in the region .

Preclassic Period

Calakmul was already a large city during the Preclassic period . The early history of Calakmul are obscure, but a dynastic line that was restored back to an ancestral past. This dynasty was rebuilt in part from the ceramics of the Late Classic period, found in the most powerful cities in the region during the Preclassic period, El Mirador and Nakbe ^, <Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 357. </ ref>. This could mean that Calakmul was eventually inherited his political authority of one of these cities, headed by a dynasty originating in the Mirador Basin in the late Preclassic period, which took refuge in Calakmul during the classical period, after the collapse of the ancient cities dominant ^, <Sharer & Traxler, 2006, p.357. </ ref>.

Classical period old

Stela 43, dated 514 , during the Preclassic period . The name of the sovereign became unreadable.

Calakmul and Tikal were both major cities of the Preclassic period that have maintained their position during the classical period . The first hieroglyphic texts on stelae found in the structure 2 tell the likely induction of a king of Calakmul in the year 411 and also reported that the leader of a non-royal site in 514 . After that, there is a gap in the hieroglyphic records for over a century, though the Kaan dynasty has experienced a major expansion of its power at that time. The lack of inscriptions relating the events of that period could be due either to the fact that the Kaan dynasty had its headquarters at this period, or perhaps the fact that the monuments were destroyed .

The first readable texts referring to the kings of the dynasty Kaan come from excavations in the great city of Dzibanch in Quintana Roo , far north of Calakmul . A frieze of stairs covered with hieroglyphs representing captives shackled, with the inclusion of their names and dates they were captured and an indication of King Yuknoom Ch'een I, although the exact context of the quotation name King is not clear - the prisoners may have been his vassals captured by an enemy of kings or captured by the ruler of Calakmul. The dates are uncertain, but two of them could go back to the ^fifth century AD . The nearby site of El Resbaln in Quintana Roo contains a hieroglyphic text damaged, indicating the date of 529 , which proves that the city was then controlled by the Kaan dynasty .

In the mid- ^sixth century AD Calakmul alliance federated policy major, a position that has brought the city to come into conflict with the great city of Tikal . Calakmul's influence extended deep into the basin Peten the king of Calakmul K'altuun Hix oversaw the induction of Aj Wosal head of the kingdom of Naranjo in 546 . Another vassal K'altuun Hix was caught by Yaxchilan on the banks of the Rio Usumacinta in 537 .

In 561 , the sovereign now known by the nickname of "contemplation of Heaven" has set a king over the site of Los Alacranes . "Contemplation of Heaven" played a major role in the political events of the Mayan area, he became the lord of the city of Caracol , a town located south of Naranjo and was previously a vassal city of Tikal . In 562 , according to a text of Caracol in poor condition, "looking to the sky" defeated Tikal sacrificed herself and her king Wak Chan K'awiil, thus ending a branch of the royal dynasty of Tikal . This catastrophic defeat was the starting point for a hiatus of 130 years to Tikal, refflet a long period of domination for Calakmul . This event is used as a marker to separate the ancient classical period of the Late Classic . "Contemplation of Heaven" is also mentioned in Yo'okop , a site located much further north in the Quintana Roo . The last reference to "looking to the sky" was found in Caracol and is dated 572. The text is damaged, but probably refers to the death of this powerful king .

Late Classic Period

War against Palenque

"Contemplation of Heaven" was quickly replaced by Yax Yopaat, which is mentioned in a text celebrating the end of Dzibanche K'atun of 573 . Yax Yopaat reigned about six years . Chan Uneh then became king of Calakmul in 579 . Uneh Chan undertook a military expedition in the Maya region west and attacked Palenque 23 April 599 with his ally Lakam Chak, lord of the town of Santa Elena, located 70 km east of Palenque, and managed to defeat the queen Palenque, Yohl Ik'nal , before putting the city bag . The defeat is recorded at Palenque even in a series of hieroglyphics and the event was the starting point of a persistent hatred towards Calakmul . Queen Yohl Ik'nal survived the battle and continued to rule for several years, although it may have paid tribute to Calakmul .

Uneh Chan has maintained alliances with the eastern cities and is represented on the stele 4 of Caracol as presiding over a ceremony for the king of this city, Yajaw Te 'K'inich, an event that took place before 583 . Palenque was sacked again on April 7 611 by the troops of Calakmul, acting under the personal command of Uneh Chan . Palenque was then ruled by King Ajena Yohl Mat who had snatched from Calakmul some form of independence which had caused the new invasion . The immediate result of this second victory over Palenque was the death of the two most important nobles of the city, Ajena Yohl Mat himself and Janaab 'Pakal , a senior member of the royal family and perhaps even co Ruler of the city. Janaab 'Pakal died in March 612 and Ajena Yohl Mat few months later. The fact that death has occurred so soon after the sacking of the city suggesting that their deaths were directly linked to the triumph of Calakmul . After that date, Palenque undergoes a period of prolonged decline, before coming to recover from its disastrous war against Calakmul . The wars against Palenque were conducted by Chan Uneh in order to take control of trade routes crossing the very active western part of the Maya area .

Rebellion Naranjo

King Yuknoom Ti Chan Calakmul oversaw a ceremony at Caracol in 619 . Stela 22 Caracol reported accession Tajoom Uk'ab 'K'ak' the throne of Calakmul in 622 . Two tombstones were erected at Calakmul in 623 , but their texts are too damaged for us to detect it the name of the royal couple in question . About this time Naranjo , a vassal city of Calakmul, broke the alliance when its king Aj Wosal died relatively soon after the death of Calakmul Uneh Chan . Naranjo took its independence vis--vis Calakmul, at least until 626 , when she was beaten twice by Caracol and Yuknoom Ti Chan may have thought the time was right to resume control of Calakmul Naranjo. These attempts were interrupted by his death in 630 . In 631 , "Yuknoom-head", the new king of Calakmul, finally got his hands on Naranjo. The texts relate that the king of Naranjo was already in captivity at Calakmul, the day his city was invaded and his punishment, suffered the same day, is described by the word whose meaning is k'uxaj be tortured or eaten . "Yuknoom-head" also conquered another city in March 636 , though the site's name is unknown .

Pinnacle

The greatest achievements of Calakmul date from the reign of King Yuknoom Ch'een II, sometimes the big appelYuknoom by researchers . Yuknoom Ch'een II was 36 years old when he ascended the throne of Calakmul in the year 636 / Sup>. A significant increase in production of headstones in the city began under his reign, and 18 tombstones were commissioned by King ^{Calakmul and Dos Pilas}

In 629 , Tikal was founded Dos Pilas in the region of Petexbatun , some 110 km south-west, as a military outpost designed to control traffic passing on the Rio Pasion . B'alaj K'awiil Chan climbed on the throne of the new outpost at the age of four years, 635 and, for many years, served his brother the king of Tikal as a loyal vassal and fought for him . In the year 648 Calakmul attacked Dos Pilas and won a landslide victory marked by the death of a lord of Tikal . B'alaj K'awiil Chan was captured by Yuknoom Ch'een II but instead of being sacrificed, it was restored to his throne as a vassal of the king of Calakmul , and joined an attack against Tikal in 657 , forcing Nuun Ujol Chaak, then king of Tikal, to temporarily abandon the city. The first two kings of Dos Pilas continued to use the emblem-glyph of Tikal and they probably thought they could have a legitimate claim to the throne of Tikal itself. For some reason, B'alaj K'awiil Chan has not been installed as the new king of Tikal, instead he stayed at Dos Pilas. Tikal launched a counterattack against Dos Pilas in 672 , forcing B'alaj Chan K'awiil to an exile that lasted five years . Calakmul tried to encircle Tikal located in the center of an area dominated by his allies, such as El Per , Dos Pilas and Caracol and attacked again Dos Pilas in 677 , forcing the king of Tikal and reinstalling B'alaj Chan K'awiil on his throne . In 679 Dos Pilas, probably helped by Calakmul, won an important victory over Tikal, and hieroglyphic texts report that the battle was a bloodbath, leaving behind piles of heads .

The unrest continued in the east, after a renewed conflict between Naranjo and Caracol. Naranjo Caracol definitively defeated in 680 , but Naranjo dynasty disappeared during the two years that followed and a girl B'alaj Chan K'awiil founded a new dynasty in 682 , indicating that Calakmul was probably reached decisively to put a faithful vassal on the throne . The patronage of Yuknoom Ch'een II as overlord came into force in a series of important cities, including El Peru, where he oversaw the installation as king of K'inich B'alam he married a princess Calakmul to strengthen ties between the two cities . The power of Calakmul then extended to the north shore of Lake Peten Itza , where Motul San Jose was his vassal in ^the seventh century , although the city has traditionally been an ally of Tikal . Yuknoom Ch'een II secured the loyalty of three generations of kings of Cancuen , located 245 km south and oversaw the induction of at least two of them, 656 and 677 . King Yuknoom Ch'een II was involved, directly or indirectly, in the crowning of a king Moral west of Tabasco and one of the noble's entourage Yuknoom supervised a ritual in Piedras Negras on Guatemalan bank Ro Usumacinta . Yuknoom Ch'een He died in his eighties, probably in early 686. When he died, Calakmul was the city's most powerful country in the lowlands of central Maya .

Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak succeeded Yuknoom Ch'een II's coronation, 3 April 686 was inscribed on the monuments of Dos Pilas and El Peru . He was born in 649 and was probably the son of his predecessor. He had previously held senior positions before becoming king, and had perhaps been responsible for major successes of the last part of the reign of Yuknoom Ch'een II . He has enjoyed the loyalty of K'inich B'alam El Pru and B'alaj Chan K'awiil of Dos Pilas and obtained that of K'ak 'Tiliw Chan Chaak in 693 , when he ascended the throne of Naranjo , at the age of five years . However, the texts carved on the monuments do not reveal the full complexity of diplomatic activity, as revealed in a vase painted ceramics of Tikal which is an ambassador of the king of Calakmul kneeling before the enthroned king of Tikal, which paid him tribute . Four years later, in August 695 , the two states are again entered the war. Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak has led his warriors against Jasaw Chan K'awiil I in a catastrophic battle that saw the defeat of Calakmul and the capture of the effigy of a deity named Calakmul Yajaw Maan . We do not know what happened to Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak, a sculpture in stucco Tikal shows a captive and the king is mentioned in the caption, but it is unclear whether the captive and the king are the same person . This event marked the end of the heyday of Calakmul, as evidenced by the collapse of diplomatic activity and the decreasing number of cities recognized the king as overlord of Calakmul . No stone left standing in the middle of the site does not mention Yuknoom K'ak Yich'aal, but some are part of the North-East and 2 broken headstones were buried in the structure 2 .

Latest kings

The next king, "Split Earth", is named on a pair of carved bones discovered in the tomb of the king of Tikal Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. He ruled from November 695 , but it is unclear whether it was a legitimate member of the Calakmul dynasty or a pretender on the throne by Tikal .

The name of the next king had several variations, and was designated by different names inside and outside of Calakmul . Its short name is Yuknoom Took 'K'awiil . He raised seven stelae to commemorate an event calendar in 702 and his name has been registered at Dos Pilas that year, presumably to show that Dos Pilas was still a vassal city of Calakmul. El Peru was also still a vassal and Yuknoom Took 'K'awiil has installed a new king on an unknown date . Naranjo also remained faithful . Yuknoom Took 'K'awiil commissioned seven stelae at the end of Katun of 731 . A new defeat by Tikal is evidenced by an altar carved in this city, which allows the dating is probably between 733 and 736 and represents a lord from Calakmul related and perhaps appointed Yuknoom Took 'K'awiil .

Calakmul and Quirigu

Beyond this date, the historical chronicles of Calakmul become very patchy, both because of the bad condition of the monuments of the city heavily eroded itself as the decline of its political presence on the entire Maya scene . Wamaw K'awiil reigned in Quirigu on the southern periphery of Mesoamerica . Quirigu was traditionally a vassal of its southern neighbor Copn , and 724 Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil king of Copan, installed his vassal K'ak 'Tiliw Chan Yopaat Quirigu on the throne of . Around 734 K'ak 'Tiliw Chan Yopaat showed he was no longer an obedient subordinate of Copn , when he began to define themselves as k'ul AHAW , Holy Lord, rather than use the more moderate of AHAW , subordinate lord, at the same time he began to use a Glyph emblem- specific Quirigu . This act of rebellion seems to have been a local episode of the great political struggle between Tikal and Calakmul. In 736 , just two years later, K'ak 'Tiliw Chan Yopaat was visited Wamaw K'awiil Calakmul, while Copn was one of the oldest allies of Tikal. The timing of the visit of the king of Calakmul is highly significant because it lies between the accession of K'ak 'Tiliw Chan Yopaat the throne of Quirigu as a vassal of Copan and outright rebellion that followed. This strongly suggests that Calakmul sponsored rebellion Quirigu in order to weaken Tikal and access to the rich trade route Valley Motagua . It is likely that contact with Calakmul was resumed shortly after K'ak 'Tiliw Chan Yopaat had acceded to the throne . In 738 K'ak 'Tiliw Chan Yopaat captured the king, but powerful old, Copan, Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil . An inscription Quirigu, although difficult to interpret, suggests that the capture took place April 27 738 , when Quirigu confiscated and burned the wooden images of deities guardianship of Copan . The lord was captured and brought to Quirigu 3 May 738 , he was ritually beheaded in public .

In the late classical period, the alliance with Calakmul was often associated with a promise of military support. The fact that Copan , a city much more powerful than Quirigu, could not retaliate against his former vassals implies that it feared the military intervention of Calakmul. Calakmul itself was far from enough for Quirigu K'ak 'Tiliw Yopaat Chan is not afraid to fall directly under his control as a vassal state, although it is likely that Calakmul sent warriors to help defeat Copan. The alliance seems rather to have had benefits for both cities: Calakmul managed to weaken a powerful ally of Tikal while Quirigu granted independence .

Collapse

Five large steles were reared in 741 , although the name of the king who has erected or unreadable on each of them, it was considered as being the sovereign . The presence of Calakmul in the entire Maya area has continued to decline, following the defeats of two key allies of the city conquered by Tikal . El Peru was defeated by 743 and Naranjo a year later and what has caused the final collapse of the alliance network of Calakmul formerly hegemonic, while Tikal has been a resurgence of power .

In 751 the ruler Z erected a stele that was never finished, paired with another bearing the portrait of a queen . Hieroglyphic stairway mentioned at about the same time the name of B'olon K'awiil who reigned in 771 when the two steles were erected and which has been included also Tonin in 789 . Sites located north of Calakmul show evidence of a reduction of its influence at the time, with the emergence of new architectural styles influenced by sites built further north in the Yucatan peninsula .

A monument was erected in 790 , although the name of the officer responsible for its construction was not preserved. Two others were trained in 800 and three 810 . No monument was erected to commemorate the important end of Bak'tun in 830 and it is likely that political power had already collapsed at that time . The major cities such as Oxpemul , Nadzcaan and La Mueca who were at some point vassal of Calakmul then erected their own monuments, where previously they had raised very little, some have continued to build new monuments quite late, until 889 . This was a process that took place in parallel to the events of Tikal . However, there is strong evidence of the presence of an elite in the city until the year 900 , perhaps even later .

In 849 , Calakmul was mentioned Seibal , where a king named Pet Chan attended the closing ceremony of the K'atun , his name be inscribed on a broken pottery found in Calakmul itself. However, it is unlikely that Calakmul still existed as an organized state in a meaningful way at this late date . Final renewed activity occurred in the late ^ninth century or early ^tenth century. A new monument has been erected, although the inscription does not mention that on the day, not the full date. The day included can correspond either to the year 899 , or the year 909 , the latter date being the most probable . Some buildings appear to be even later, although their style is crude, they represent the efforts of the remaining population to maintain the classic Maya tradition. However, the inscriptions on these monuments are merely meaningless imitation of writing original .

Ceramics dating from the late Classical period are rare outside of the core site, suggesting that the population had taken refuge in the city during the last phase of occupation of Calakmul . Most of the surviving population was probably made up of commoners who had occupied the homes for the elite, the center of the site, but the continued construction of headstones in the early ^tenth century and the presence of imported products of high value, such as metals, the obsidian , the jade and shells, indicating a continued occupation by the royal family until the final abandonment of the city .

Modern History

Calakmul was first explored in 1931 by Cyrus Lundell which , a year later, informed Sylvanus Morley of the existence of the site and the presence of more than 60 stelae . Morley himself has visited the ruins, on behalf of the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1932 . In the year 1930 researchers have mapped the primary site and listed 103 stelae . The excavations were adopted in 1938 and archaeologists are not returned to the site until 1982 , when William J. Folan led a research program on behalf of the Universidad Autonoma de Campeche , Calakmul to work until 1994 . Calakmul is now the subject of a major project of the Institute National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) under the direction of Ramn Carrasco .

Site description

The structure 2 of Calakmul, one of the most massive structures in the Mayan world, built during the Preclassic period, continued to be used until the Late Classic .

The heart of the Calakmul site covers an area of approximately 2 km2, an area that contains the remains of about 1,000 structures . The periphery is occupied by small residential structures outside the heart of the site which covers an area of over 20 km2 in which archaeologists have mapped about 6250 structures . Calakmul corresponds in size and population, estimated at the great city of Tikal , although the density of the city seems to have been higher .

The stone used in the construction site is a limestone tender. This resulted in a significant erosion of the sculptures . The city of Calakmul was built in an essentially concentric and can be divided into different areas more or less distant from the center of the site . The central zone covers an area of 1.75 km2. It contains most of the monuments and there are 975 mapped structures, which contain about 300 stone masonry vaults . About 92 structures consist of large pyramids arranged around plazas and courses . The heart of the city is bordered to the north by a high wall of 6 m, which controls access from the north and may also have a defensive function .

Many residences of commoners were built along the marshes of El Laberinto west of the site center, although some prestige homes and public buildings were interspersed between them. The area between the residences has been used for horticulture .

Water control

The site is surrounded by a vast network of canals and reservoirs . There are five major reservoirs, including the largest known example in the Maya world, measuring 242 m by 212 m . This tank is filled by a small river flowing only during the rainy season and still contains enough water to be used by archaeologists in modern times .

Thirteen reservoirs have been identified Calakmul . Their total capacity is estimated at more than 200 million liters . This amount of water could supply 50,000 to 100,000 people and there is no evidence that tanks were used to irrigate crops .

Aguada 1 is the largest of tanks and has an area of 5 ha .

Roads

Eight sacbeob (roads) have been identified around Calakmul . Two of them were mapped, three were identified visually on the ground and three others identified by remote sensing . They were numbered as follows Sacbe Sacbe 1 to 7 . The pavement network not only links to satellite sites local Calakmul, but also allies and rivals further away, such as large cities of El Mirador , El Tintal and Nakba . Roadways that cross wetlands have been raised in relation to the surrounding wetlands and now they tend to house a growing denser than the surrounding forest .

The SACB 1 extends over 450 m, is surrounded by walls filled with pebbles and stones . It is located within the urban area comprising the main site . The Sacbe 1 was mapped in the years 1930 by the Carnegie Institution of Washington .

The Sacbe 2 is 70 m long. It has also been located in the central urban area of the site . The Sacbe 2 is constructed in clay and was discovered during archaeological excavations in a nearby quarry . This floor can be built to transport stone from the quarry to build the structures 1 and 3 .

The SACB 3 extends about 8 km north-east of the main site and its layout is visible from the top of the structure 1. It was discovered in 1982 .

The Sacbe 4 extends over 24 km southeast of the main site, it is also visible from the top of the structure 1 and it was discovered in 1982 .

The Sacbe 5 goes to the west of the main tank, through the marshes of El Laberinto seasonal and covers a distance total of 16 km or more to Sasilh .

The Sacbe 6 heads to the southwest through Calakmul and connects to El Mirador (38.25 km south-west) and, beyond, in El Tintal (30 km further) .

The Sacbe 7 is located south of Sacbe 6. It is at least 5.1 km long and runs through the marsh El Laberinto .

The Sacbe 8 is located on the western side of the marsh and does not seem to cross the main site .

Structures

ball game at Calakmul

The heart of the site, an area of 2 square kilometers, contains thousands of structures .

The structure 1 (or structure I) is a pyramid 50 m high, located east of the main site . A number of headstones have been erected at its base by Yuknoom Took 'K'awiil in 731 . Because it was built on a low hill, the structure appears to be a structure higher than 2, although this is not the case .

Structure 2 (or Structure II) is a huge pyramid temple facing north, one of the world's largest Maya . mesure120 Its base square meters and its height is over 45 m . The heart of the building (structure 2A) is a triadic pyramid dating from the late Preclassic period and the old building remains the highest point of the structure . In the early classical period a massive extension was added to the front of the pyramid, covering an older building covered with stucco, located on the north side. Three new shrines were built on this extension (Structures 2B, 2C and 2D), each had their own sanctuaries staircase . The structure was the central sanctuary 2B, 2C was located to the east and 2D West . The facade consisted of six large masks between the stairs, three vertically arranged on each side of the central staircase . The structure 2 has similarities to the view date of construction, size and design with the El Tigre pyramid at El Mirador , and ceramics is also associated with similar . Later buildings were erected at the base of the facade, each containing several stelae . During the ^eighth century AD, the structure 2B was buried under a large pyramid and a stepped facade covered the giant masks . Later another facade was built on top of the ^eighth century but it has perhaps never been finished . During the Late Classic palace of nine rooms was built on top of the pyramid, supporting a roof with a serrated monumental bas-relief decoration of painted stucco . The pieces were divided into three groups of three, each placed in a row in the previous boiut . The whole palace of the late classical period measured 19.4 m m sur12 . The first two rooms of each series (parts 1-6.) Were used for preparing food, metates and homes were found in each of them . Room 7, the room in the southwest, was a sauna .

Structure I

Structure 3 (or Structure III, also known as Lundell's Palace) is located southeast of the structure 4 on the east side of Central Plaza. It is a building with several rooms .

Structure 4 (or is a group of three temples on the east side of Central Plaza. It is divided into three sections, referred to as structures 4a, 4b and 4c. The central structure of 4b is built on a foundation dating to the Preclassic period . With the structure 6 located on the opposite side of the square, these buildings form the Group E could have been used to determine the solstice and equinoxes .

Structure 5 (or is a large building on the plaza north of the structure 2 . She was surrounded by 10 headstones, many of which dated from the ^seventh century AD, although the building itself was erected earlier, during the Preclassic period .

Structure 6 (or structure VI) is located on the west side of Central Plaza and associated structures 4a, 4b and 4c, it forms the complex astronomical Group E . In 1989, observations have verified that on March 21, the day of the equinox , the sun rises behind the 4b structure when viewed from the structure 6 .

Structure 7 (or Structure VII) is a pyramid temple located on the north side of Plaza Central . It faces south and measures 24 meters high. Five tombstones were erected on the south side of the pyramid . It was built in several phases of construction from beginning to end of the Late Classic . The pyramid was topped by a temple with three rooms that had a high serrated roof covered with stucco . A game board patolli was dug in the floor of the outer chamber of the temple .

Structure 8 (VIII or Structure / B>) is a small building located on the north side of Central Plaza, east of the structure 7. It is associated with a stele and its altar ^{Stele, frescoes and ceramics}

Stela 88 located on the staircase of the Structure 13

Calakmul is one of the richest sites of any built structures in the Maya region. The site contains 117 stelae, the largest concentration in the region . Most of them are matched two to two representing the kings and their wives . However, these stelae were carved in soft limestone, most are too eroded to be interpreted. In addition to many elaborate murals were discovered at Calakmul. Strangely, these murals do not represent the activities of the elite. Instead, they represent a detailed market scenes with people who prepare or eat traditional products such as the atole , the tamales , the tobacco or various ointments. Among the items offered for sale are also represented in textiles and needles. These murals also included glyphs describing the actions illustrated . The most important character of these murals is identified as "Lady nine stones," which appears in many scenes. It provides archaeologists valuable documentation on the dynamic markets of the Mayan world. Another very beneficial resource for understanding the Mayan Calakmul is represented by the archaeological ceramics. The composition of ceramic materials to identify the region or, more precisely, the political system that produced them. Ceramics with the glyph for the emblem of the snake discovered at several sites also provide additional evidence to identify the commercial links on this site with Calakmul.

Stela 1 is associated with an altar and near the structure 8

Stela 9 is a monument in slate thin dated 662. The text describes the birth of King Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak 'and give him his full royal title .

Stela 28 and Stela 29 were built in 623 and are the oldest extant monuments dating from the Late Classic at Calakmul. They are a royal couple, but the texts are too poorly preserved to reveal their names .

33 The stele was erected by Yuknoom Ch'een II 657 and celebrates an event dating to the reign of Uneh Chan, who could be her father. The ceremony was celebrated in 593 .

Stela 38 is located at the base of the structure 2

Stela 50 is one of the few monuments to the time of the final decline of the city. He wears a crude portrait, crudely executed .

Stela 51 is the best preserved monument of Calakmul. It represents Yuknoom Took 'K'awiil and date of 731 .

Stela 54, dated 731 represents a wife Took deYuknoom 'K'awiil .

The stela 57 is a high stele erected in 771 by B'olon K'awiil. It is twinned with Stela 58 and is located east of the structure 13 .

Stela 58 is the second of a pair built by B'olon K'awiil in 771 , the other being the Stela 57. It was erected east of the structure 13 .

Stela 61 is a monument later named after Aj Took '. It is a stele with a picture highly eroded and bearing a date in abbreviated form which is equivalent to either 899 or to 909 , the last being the most probable .

Stela 62 was incomplete. It was carved on the occasion of the graduation ceremony K'atun in 751 and damaged the name of King Z .

Stela 76 and Stela 78 consttituent a pair of monuments dating from 633. They are heavily eroded, but date from the reign of King "Yuknoom Head" .

The Stela 84 is one of the few monuments to Calakmul and it bears an inscription which is an imitation of writing without literal meaning. It probably dates from the early ^tenth century AD .

Stela 88 has been paired with Stela 62. The monument shows an image of a queen, but his name is unknown. B'olon K'awiil also seems to be mentioned on the stele. It dates from about 751 and is on the stairs of the structure 13 .

Stela 91 is another very late monument probably dating from the early ^tenth century. Like Stela 84, it bears an inscription which is a meaningless immitation of hieroglyphic writing .

Stele 114 date 435 , the old Classic period. It was moved in antiquity to be seen at the base of the structure 2. The stele has a long hieroglyphic text that has withstood the translation, but probably commemorates a royal enthronement in 411 .

Stele 115 and the date from the reign of Stle116 Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak. They were broken and buried in the structure 2 and can be associated with the royal burial tomb of 4 .

Royal Burial

Tomb 4 was dug in the floor of the structure 2B during the ^eighth century AD and is the richest known grave Calakmul . The tomb contained the skeleton of a man wrapped in tissue and jaguar skins partially preserved by the use of resin. The grave contained rich offerings including jade ear ornaments, dating from the early classical period, mask mosaic of jade, shell and bone beads, oyster shells, obsidian blades, fine ceramics and the remains of objects wood.The a ceramics was a dish with a hieroglyphic text naming the king Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak 'as its owner . The remains and offerings were placed in a wooden coffin carved with an elaborate setting of hieroglyphs painted in a variety of colors. The coffin was almost completely decomposed, but he had left an imprint in the clay that surrounded . Due to the flat and the possible association of steles 115 and 116 with the burial, the grave is regarded as dating from the late ^seventh century , during the reign of Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak ' .

Notes

See also

• El Zotz
• List of Maya sites
• Maya civilization
• Maya
• List of Maya sites
• Tikal

References

• (In) This article is partially or entirely from the article in English entitled " Calakmul "(see the list of authors )

Bibliography

• (In) Braswell, Geoffrey E., The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition, and Transformation, Boulder, University Press of Colorado , 2005 ( ISBN 0-87081-822-8 ) ( OCLC 61719499 ), "Defining the Terminal Classic at Calakmul, Campeche, p. 162-194
• (In) Michael D. Coe , New York, Thames and Hudson, 2005 .
• Domnguez, Mara del Rosario, "Calakmul, Mexico: Aguadas, bajos, precipitacin asentamiento y en el Peten Campechano.", In IX Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueolgicas in Guatemala, 1995 (edited by JP Laporte and H. Escobedo), Guatemala, Museo Nacional of Archaeology and Etnologa, 1996, p. 147-173 External Links
  • Calakmul - Patrimonio Cultural de la Humanidad INAH site is Calakmul
  • Calakmul (from The State of Campeche Book)
  • Friends of Calakmul
  • Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, information from Mexico's National Parks Commission
  • Virtual Walking Tour of Calakmul by David R. Hixson (click on "Calakmul" for photo gallery)
  • Kaan Main Emblem Glyphs at FAMSI: A , B
  • (En) The Maya civilization
  • (En) The history of Maya

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