Babylon Kingdom
The kingdom of Babylon flourished in Mesopotamia south of the early second millennium BC until 539, when making its capital by the king Cyrus II of Persia. During its long history it has seen good times and some more difficult, and several successive dynasties headed.
It traditionally distinguishes three major periods in the history of Babylon, knowing that prior to around 700 BC. BC, the dates are approximate:
- Old Babylonian period (about 2004-1595 BC.), With the first dynasty of Babylon, home Amorite ;
- Mid-Babylonian Period (1595-late second millennium BC.), Including Dynasty Kassite ;
- Neo-Babylonian period (early first millennium-539 BC.), Resulting in the Neo-Babylonian Empire (627-539 BC.) Dominated by the figure of Nebuchadnezzar II and marks the end of the independence of Babylon.
The establishment of a kingdom centered on a single capital for a millennium and a half marks a break in the history of Mesopotamia, and Babylon became the center of the southern part of this region, while the north is centered at From the second half of the second millennium by the Assyrians , who became the main opponent of the Babylonians. The fate of southern Mesopotamia, ancient land of Sumer and Akkad , thus merges with that of the Babylonian kingdom in the middle of the second millennium.
Babylonia thus became the political center, but also cultural and religious heritage of ancient Mesopotamian civilization, and thus one of the main cities of the ancient Near East and throughout the ancient world. His prestige was immense during the ancient period, and was handed down today by the traditional biblical and the authors of classical Greece.
Rediscovery of the Babylonian kingdom
Babylon in the Western and Eastern traditions
The name of Babylon remained alive during the centuries that followed his fall with the trace that the city and his kingdom have left several messages which talked, written from the time they were still prestigious. At the time of domination Persian (e V - IV century BC.) Babylon is described by several Greek authors including Herodotus and Ctesias , mentioning the greatness of the city and some elements of its history, not without some confusion or approximations, including the substitution of Assyria to Babylon to certain events The Babylonian Talmud also provides some information on the Babylon and partly inspired by his knowledge, even if it is a source to be used with caution . Above all astronomical and astrological knowledge of the Babylonians who provide their posterity in the scholarly world. Jewish tradition is the primary means by which the memory of Babylon is transmitted to the Middle Ages, among Christian nations that have made most of the books of the Hebrew Bible their Old Testament and in Babylon who often has a negative image but also among people who occupy the land of ancient Mesopotamia, the Arabs , and their neighboring Iran , whose scholars and scientists (including astronomers) mention it "Babil".
The rediscovery of Babylon by explorers and archaeologists
Early Western travelers who roam the Lower Mesopotamia in the Middle Ages and modern times do not agree on the location to give Babylon , whose ruins are not as evocative as those of neighboring sites as Birs Nimrud (the Former Borsippa ) or Aqar Quf (formerly Hard-Kurigalzu ) . Finally, the first excavations of the nineteenth century are the proper site , while rediscovering the capitals Assyrian held to the same period of growing interest to the rediscovery of ancient Mesopotamia , and the excavated are becoming more numerous in ancient Babylonia. From this period dates the birth of the discipline called Assyriology of the first people after Mesopotamian to be rediscovered, and is based on the study of cuneiform tablets unearthed on the excavated sites that we manage to decipher the middle nineteenth century. Babylon is finally the subject of regular excavations in the early twentieth century, remarkably conducted by a German team led by Robert Koldewey that reveals its major monuments . The gradual rediscovery of the other major sites of Lower Mesopotamia ( Sippar , Borsippa , Nippur , Ur , Uruk , etc..) allows to exhume a number of documents from the periods in which they were controlled by the Babylonian kings. Since then, dozens of yards have raised a substantial literature on the long history of the Babylonian kingdom, whether structural, artistic or epigraphic.
Available sources for the study of the Babylonian kingdom
The territory of the ancient kingdom of Babylon cover at its maximum extension during the Neo-Babylonian period, the whole Mesopotamia and several neighboring regions, but generally not directly overlooks the Lower Mesopotamia, also known as Babylonia. The long period during which Babylon is dominant in southern Mesopotamia covers most of the second millennium BC. After AD 1792 and also the majority of the first millennium BC. BC Archaeological excavations have uncovered a significant amount of buildings and objects, including written sources, from many sites in this region. They were concerned above all major public buildings, areas of temples and palaces, and sometimes living quarters. Of ground surveys were also conducted in several areas of Lower Mesopotamia. Since the start of the Gulf War in 1991, it is possible to conduct regular searches in ancient Babylonia lasting, and only illicit excavations are taking place.
The period of the Babylonian kingdom is documented by a vast quantity of written sources. We will not retreat from the various indirect evidence from recent antiquity, the largest being formed by the tens of thousands of tablets and inscriptions in cuneiform from the sites of ancient Mesopotamia. These written sources can be classified into different categories . The greater the number of documents from archives of institutions (palaces or temples) or families who are often legal texts (contracts of sale, lease, loan, marriage, etc..), And can sometimes be reported on stelae (as kudurrus ) or administrative texts (recording the movement of goods, cadastres), and sometimes pieces of correspondence. Texts such as "literary", "religious" or "scientific" are often textbooks that are produced by apprentice scribes, often incomplete or wrong, although there are also some funds shelves that can be regarded as kinds of libraries, from religious institutions or houses of priests. Finally, there are commemorative texts from the royal scribes, which serve to preserve the memory of the deeds of the king, as the inscriptions glorifying the construction or restoration of a building, victorious battles, the sense of justice of a king (such as the Code of Hammurabi ) or hymns in praise of the king, or even historical chronicles.
The First Dynasty of Babylon: the beginnings of the Babylonian power
Babylon is mentioned for the first time XXIV centuryBC. AD , in a text cuneiform dating from the reign of Shar-Kali-Sharri king of the Empire of Akkad which it becomes part. It is then an administrative center of the Empire of Ur III. The city does not have the prestige of its southern neighbors, as Nippur. It becomes an important political center with the establishment of a dynasty of origin Amorite , the First Dynasty of Babylon in the early second millennium after the fall of Ur, which leaves room for a period of Fragmentation policy of Lower Mesopotamia. This period is called the Old Babylonian period.
It is from the small kingdom of Babylon that King Hammurabi is phasing out its neighbors to dominate Mesopotamia during the eighteenth century. The rulers of Babylon then inherit the long history of the region, its administrative traditions, economic and cultural, but their domination is not sustainable because their kingdom plunged into a serious crisis and sustainable.
The kings of the Amorite dynasty of Babylon
Early rulers
The first ruler of Babylon Amorite Sumu-abum , whose reign began in 1894 . His successor Sumu-la-El is not his son, he is the ancestor of the lineage of kings from the First Dynasty. He managed to take the cities around Babylon. His son Sabium (1844-1831) and his little son Apil-Sin (1830-1813) reign successively extended the territory, which extends south to near Nippur , which belongs to the kingdom of Larsa , and north on the region's average price of Tiger to the kingdom of Eshnunna. Babylon establishing itself as a rising power. Sub -muballit Sin (1812-1792), the kingdom rose against Larsa, and Nippur and Isin are taken. But the presence north of the Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia of Samsi-Addu , ally of the Babylonian kings, as their respective dynasties have common ancestors, as well as that of Eshnunna led Dadush then Ibal-pi-El II , limits the growth. In 1794, King of Larsa, Rim-Sin was able to resume the previous losses.
Hammurabi, founder of the Babylonian power
Upon his inauguration, Hammurabi must take action against his main rival, Rim-Sin. It attacks the territory dominated by it and picks up Isin, of Uruk and Ur. He then extended his dominion to the north-east Eshnunna cons, then west. On the death of Samsi-Addu, the political situation in northern Mesopotamian exchange. Zimri-Lim seized Mari and is a powerful state on the upper Euphrates. In 1765, he allied himself with Hammurabi to repel an attack by the Elamites , who had previously taken Eshnunna with their support. The following year, he provokes war against Larsa, finally captured the city, getting rid of Rim-Sin. In 1762, he seized Husband beating his former ally Zimri-Lim, and the following year he destroyed the city, which never recovered. Hammurabi continues its momentum now that nobody is able to stop him: he seizes Eshnunna, then by Ashur. At his death in 1750, he made Babylon the capital of the most powerful Mesopotamian kingdom.
Hammurabi's successors face a serious crisis and sustainable
Samsu-iluna (1749-1712) succeeded his father, and inherits a difficult situation: the kingdom is in turmoil, and many revolts disrupt his reign . The country is more affected by an economic crisis that the king can not resolve despite the proclamation twice edicts of andurarum to reduce the indebtedness of his subjects (see below). This situation seems to be attested Larsa from the time of the conquest of Hammurabi, and is visible in the increased food prices and the phasing out of several sites . A revolt shook the southern Lower Mesopotamia in the early years of the reign of Samsu-iluna . The rebels are defeated, but the cities of the region are deserted ( Nippur , Uruk , Larsa , etc..) partly because of the economic crisis that affects them, which results in a loss of territory to Babylon. The following military campaigns led Samsu-iluna northward in the valley of the Diyala region and Khabur , but he failed to preserve the great kingdom he inherited from his father.
The rulers following , Abi-eshuh (1711-1684), Ammi-ditana (1683-1647) and Ammi-aduqa (1646-1626) fail to halt the decline of the kingdom. Military events are very poorly known, official sources of this period is sparse. They still manage to preserve the Babylonian influence northward into the region of Diyala and the Middle Euphrates. New populations that make migration even more disturb the balance of the kingdom: the Kassites the Hurrian and Hittite. Babylonian rulers can not solve the problems facing them. Samsu-ditana (1625-1595) inherited a difficult situation when he can no more stop than its predecessors.
Institutions and structures of the first Babylonian kingdom
The organization of the Old Babylonian kingdom
Echoing the ancient Mesopotamian tradition, the king (arrum) is a king of Babylon whose ideal is to act for the welfare of his subjects, he must manage as a herd, by mobilizing them if necessary in case of conflict or great works of general interest. There is also a military leader must be victorious . It is the guarantor of peace and justice, and as the supreme judge of the kingdom. The king can proclaim edicts miarum andurarum or by which he seeks to restore fairness in the kingdom, notably by abolishing debts . Finally, it is up to him to ensure contact between the world of men and gods, he is the representative on earth and who have chosen to place this post. That is why he often uses the soothsayers who interpret the divine messages .
To assist in carrying out its duties, the king is surrounded by several dignitaries, whose exact functions are poorly defined : the ukkallum is a kind of "vizier," the andabakkum has a handler function Finance, the upar akkakkim is a private secretary to the king. Anyway, the point is to have a personal relationship with the king, who governs so with his "comrades", which is a different practice from that of the Mesopotamian kings of the third millennium, and therefore represents a Amorite contribution. Thus Hammurabi took his major decisions with loved ones gathered in "secret counsel" (a piritim).
The great cities of the kingdom had a governor (pirum), whose function is unclear . The provincial division eludes us. At the lower level, communities were led by a "mayor" (rabinum) and a board of elders who played a role judiciary and police. Another local institution with a similar function is the neighborhood (babtum) in cities. A final figure was a judicial function, the royal judge (dayynum) that could pass sentence. Subjects must perform several services (ilkum) for their king and his administration : chores for public works (restoration or construction of canals, walls, temples), participation in military campaigns.
The Babylonian army is largely unknown, although his organization appears similar to other contemporary kingdoms, including that of Mari who is best known / Sup>. The base is made of soldiers grouped in units of ten men, built into a hierarchical system in groups of 50 and 100, 200/300 and finally a thousand men led by an army chief (alik pan sabi) that is generally a relative of the king unless the king himself takes the head of his troops. The equipment of the troops passed through the system of ilkum, with the allocation of crown land to a soldier against military service, and that is the subject of several articles in the Code of Hammurabi. Permanent troops were also maintained directly by the royal palace, sometimes recruited from foreign nations Free and unfree Babylonian society is like any society Mesopotamia ancient split between free people and unfree people. But the hierarchy as it appears in the Code of Hammurabi is more complex, since two distinct groups among the people free: awlum muknum and . The term means awlum wider "someone" in a narrower sense a free person as opposed to a slave, and an even more restricted than the Code of Hammurabi, there is the category most Honourable Company. They may be members of the administration of the palace, then a sort of "aristocracy of office" according to D. Charpin, or simply the term equivalent to "gentleman" for R. Westbrook. It is in any case of the rich and respected. The status of muknum is much debated. It is obviously less honorable and less rich than the awlum, and if we admit that he is a member of the administration of the palace muknum then goes outside of this framework, but unlike any other interpretation makes muknum a dependent of the palace. The slaves are referred to as masculine and feminine wardum amtum, meaning broadly "servant" or "lower" . The Mesopotamian slave is a person dependent on a master that can be sold. It can become a slave after a catch during a war or a woman born a slave, or due to extreme economic hardship that led to the sale of the person. The Code of Hammurabi was taking steps against their escape: those who help a runaway slave shall be killed, while those who denounce them are rewarded. The role of slaves is to perform the most menial tasks, including grinding grain or weave cloth, often in the home, but they are not a major work force in society that can not be described Slavery. The family is a key institution in any society, well known legal sources of the Old Babylonian period . The family is usually nuclear and monogamous marriage formed by a woman who sees a pass of paternal authority in the marital power, reaching the residence of her husband. The marriage gave rise to the exchange of a dowry (eriktum, nudunnum) given to the bridegroom by the family of the bride, while the husband was offering in return a "wedding gift" (terhatum), sometimes accompanied by a gift from husband to wife (biblum). In rich families, these exchanges could be significant, and sometimes involve real estate or slaves. The husband may take a second wife if the first does not give him an heir, the new wife is subordinate to the first. Within the family, patriarchal authority is clear: it can have concubines, he is the only one able to repudiate the other, in cases of adultery by his wife, he decides whether it should be killing her lover. The law also ensures compliance inflexible towards his father's son. If the father had no children to support themselves once old, he could adopt one, which has the same rights as any child would be born . Transmissions of inheritance are following different customs depending on the location: an egalitarian way between son at Sippar , benefit to the elder to Larsa and Isin. We may add that besides being often an economic unit engaged in the same business from father to son, the family unit was also a religious worship of household gods with specific patterns, and worshiping ancestors which are often buried under the floor of the family residence . Economic activities in Mesopotamia old are supported by actors within two sectors: institutions that are often called "large bodies" following AL Oppenheim, which are the palace (royal and provincial) and temples here understood as institutions and economic stakeholders, and are managed similarly , and a private sector outside the framework of large organizations. Specifically, there are overlaps between the two since a person may participate in the economic life of a great organization and conduct of private economic activities. The relative importance of economic activity in both sectors is impossible to establish, because even if our documentation refers primarily large organizations that are the largest producers of texts in everyday life, it is not clear that they dominate all economic life . Anyway, they have a considerable impact on society in many ways . The Temple of the main deity of the city contributes to the identity of the latter, as its deity is often invoked during oaths in contracts and is in the center of the main festivals of the town led by its clergy. Economic institution as it has many estates, and a number of notables of the city work on his behalf. The palace is itself at the top of society, has vast areas and drains it to many resources, including prestige goods that redistributes in part to personnel administration and army. These institutions therefore help to train the elite of society. From an administrative standpoint, the palace was managing its land in different ways . One group was granted to "dependent" (nasi biltim), who were simultaneously operating equipment and paying a royalty in kind and in cash at the palace. Herds of the palace were managed under a similar principle. The second group of land was allocated to persons performing a service (ilkum) for the state, military style, administrative, craft, etc.. So agents of royal power. It served to support themselves and expenses necessary for the exercise of their office, rather than pay them a salary or maintenance rations. The organization of craft work is less well documented, but we know that the Babylonian palace had workshops, especially for textiles and craftsmen employed outside the palace for the tasks they must perform in addition to their activity private. The palace was also a world trade . He was first a great variety of consumer goods, this stimulated a significant trade, but he also sold food. He appealed for help from an intermediary, the tamkrum (translated as "merchant"), to whom he entrusted to sell products and pay back the sales proceeds. We do not know if its merchants were civil servants or private contractors to whom these tasks entrusted the palace from time to time. The temples were also the major economic actors, known mainly by the shelves of the temples of Sippar. They owned vast areas often given by the king to the tutelary deity, but also purchased and operated by their dependent . These productions were mobilized to serve in worship or fund, whether for gifts or payments of priests, or for trade financing of purchases of goods necessary for worship. The king, however, exercised control over the management of the temple, which was in the hands of administrators atammum as a kind of steward. By the system of bribes (see below), the temple sees gravitate around him a large number of notables. The private sector, although poorly documented and sometimes difficult to separate from the main sector agencies with which it can interact, clearly occupies a place in the Mesopotamian economy of the time . Several examples show that there were transactions of land, including agricultural land ( fields , gardens - palm ), which clearly indicates the existence of private property, among the richest could amount to a large organism in miniature. We have already seen that there are also arguments for the existence of artisans and merchants make at least part of their activities on their own account. Private actors could also engage in financial activities by lending money at interest. It does not appear that there was a monopoly of the palace on certain products, or even a rigid fixation of wages and prices by the government, rather it merely to indicate the amount as fair or acceptable minimum . Lower Mesopotamia is a vast plain that is the delta of the Euphrates , which flows west and the Tigris , which flows to the east, the two dividing into several side branches . The slope is very low, and the rivers carry along a large quantity of alluvium , so that the level of their courses is enhanced compared to the plain. It further notes a gradual shift in their path, leading to the abandonment of cities at certain times they used to irrigate. Their very violent floods come in the spring, when the harvest of grain, so they are useless for agriculture. Moreover, since the Lower Mesopotamia does not receive enough rainfall to the dry farming, it is necessary to irrigate fields to grow plants. The inhabitants of Lower Mesopotamia have developed a complex irrigation system . Its primary function was to supply water from the fields by canals. Rivers flowing above the plain, irrigation by gravity is sufficient: it was enough to make an opening on the edge of the canal to allow water to irrigate the field. In some cases, the field is irrigated by a device to flip the shaduf. This system was complemented by storage of water (reservoirs, dams) that were also used to fight against floods, and drainage away from irrigated land. The channels were also used for river transport. The maintenance and digging canals have become over time the major tasks which boasted the rulers, who saw a way to contribute to the prosperity of their subjects, even if they are daily local institutions and individuals must take care of these arrangements . The landscape of rural Lower Mesopotamia is made up of an area of irrigated fields and gardens where palm-generally elongated along their narrow side channels for their cultivation . The villages are established on embankments near rivers natural or artificial, but the early second millennium are still largely minority urban areas face which group the majority of the population, including farmers. Beyond the areas under cultivation, there are areas of uncultivated steppe and wetlands that provide many different resources (fish, reeds). Agriculture of Lower Mesopotamia is dominated by the culture of barley ( Sumerian SE, Akkadian e'u (m)), cereal generally preferred to wheat and the spelled because of its better resistance to saline soils of the region and because it requires less water . The tools used for working the fields are those used for centuries in Mesopotamia: the plow to seeder (epinnu (m)) drawn by oxen, the hoe and sickle . Plowing the land was done by teams of laborers and three or four cattle. We usually practiced fallow biennium. Under normal circumstances, yields the best land could be very high, and reach 16 / 1 or 20 / 1 or more. Barley is the main source of food for the ancient Mesopotamians, it is consumed as bread , the cake of boiled or even beer , drink widespread in Lower Mesopotamia . The other major crop in the region was that of date palm , which supports him as saline soils, and whose growth requires strong sunlight and a significant input of water, why the palm trees are placed at the edge channels. The palm does not produce edible dates after five years, people renting a field to put a palm grove are entitled not to pay any royalties until those five years, and yet it is lightweight (half of the harvest cons two-thirds in normal times by the Code of Hammurabi, sections 60 to 64). The palm provides other products and more dates: its wood can be used for tools and structures, the ends of the shaft and some of its fibers used to weave baskets, and releases the pushing at the base of the tree are used to produce palm wine. In addition, the palm gardens are true, since taking advantage of the shade provided by palm trees - which could reach up to 20 meters high - for growing various vegetables and fruit at their feet, salad , peas chickpea , lentil , bean , onion , garlic , figs , apples , pomegranates , etc.. . Besides crops, farmers maintained Mesopotamian few head of livestock, primarily sheep providing the wool and goats provide the milk , but also cattle , more expensive, and pigs , the donkeys and the chicken . Regular access to meat was limited for the majority of the population, reserved tables of the elite and the gods. The largest herds of animals are those in large organizations, who could entrust professional pastors. The animals graze on the edge of cultivated land or on fallow fields. Institutional herds could be sent in the summer to cooler areas north of Babylonia in the summer, a kind of transhumance. Finally, agriculture in Lower Mesopotamia could be very productive at the cost of development and constant care in a challenging environment but who became very rich when fully developed. One problem with irrigation is soil salinization: irrigation water brought minerals that remained after evaporation in the soil and lowering yields. While some practices had been implemented to address this risk, as the practice of drainage of the soil to remove part of the salts, the phenomenon that began during the third millennium may have contributed to making many uncultivated land at the end of the Old Babylonian period, playing a role in the economic crisis of that time . But it remains difficult to assess the real impact of this degradation and the limits of Agriculture of Lower Mesopotamia appear before any human: there are usually more land to cultivate as available manpower, and in case of conflict or economic crises agricultural system could be disrupted and suffer a major setback. Lower Mesopotamia since the end of the fourth millennium a highly urbanized region : if we retain only the size which is the main criterion visible to surveys, more than half the living space is then concentrated on sites over 100 acres . It is therefore in the presence of a true urban civilization, even though more and more cities declined after the reign of Samsu-iluna , especially in the south where most of the ancient Sumerian cities were gradually abandoned ( Nippur , Uruk , Eridu , Ur , Isin , Larsa , Girsu , Umma , etc..). The excavations of urban spaces for the Old Babylonian period have focused on public buildings (temples and palaces). The planning can be approached in several cities have been the subject of surveys revealing their internal urban structure, as Larsa (Tell Senkerah) and Mashkan-shape (Tell Abu Duwari) also located in the kingdom of Larsa . Two other small towns of this period are a special case, cities planned Harradum (Khirbet ed-Diniye) and Shaduppum (Tell Harmal). The fact that they built a line shows how the organization of a city was designed by the ancient Mesopotamians: there is an enclosure doors pierced, city blocks bounded by streets, which have the characteristic Harradum to be straight with a nearly square shape, and the dominant religious and administrative buildings. Mesopotamian cities are located on one or several natural streams or man who sometimes cross, and have docks (Karum) for river traffic . They are surrounded by a wall pierced by gates more or less broad where taxes could be collected , . The streets and canals delimit blocks of buildings. A great way leading to the main district where was the palace of the king or the governor and the great temple of the city, sometimes accompanied by a ziggurat (tower floors). Part of the urban space was occupied by fields or gardens, palm trees, indicating that there were intra-urban agricultural activities, plus the fact that farmers could live in cities and work the fields at around them. Neighborhoods (babtum) of the city are a strong social reality: they have "leaders" can intervene in disputes on property, inform the authorities of the reputation of certain individuals in cases of theft or adultery, giving them a role of social control formal . It has been identified in urban spaces or text searched several specialty areas: some where resided many merchants, clergy, and neighborhood craft . There are no exceptions, rich or poor neighborhoods, the houses skirting the broad smaller, clustering is done perhaps as a model who sees a rich household gathering around his large home small homes dependents. Residences have been excavated at several sites, and real neighborhoods have emerged in major cities of the period, Ur and Nippur , and to a lesser extent Sippar . It is packed neighborhoods, where streets are often narrow and rarely straight. Residences are more or less extensive, but usually cramped. Traffic is often organized around a central courtyard or space which is not known if he was covered or not. There are also small houses linear organization. The functions of rooms, many in large homes, are often difficult to determine, especially since some have been multifunctional. There was storage space, banquet halls, sometimes a few pieces of water, and space for the domestic worship, perhaps in small chapels. Many of these homes were probably one story, but it is often difficult to determine. Family graves were dug under the houses, now the link between the living and the dead family. Some shelves have delivered private, legal, economic or academic. Craft activities are poorly documented for the period of the First Dynasty of Babylon, the Babylonian records relating to this area being outside or prior to this kingdom . Some neighborhoods to craft specialization have been spotted on some urban sites, but few facilities craftsmen have been unearthed. Section 274 of the Code of Hammurabi showing the starting salaries of several artisans gives a list of trades, but it is fragmented and therefore difficult to read. The same text also mentions the activities of contractors in construction works (articles 228-231), which had to be very important in urban as architects or experts in guiding the masonry construction. The emoluments of temples show different craft activities in connection with the cult, such as food processing (brewer, baker). The cities also included spaces for exchange, and it seems to have existed notably markets located near doors and shops. But the great place of business was the platform (Karum) of the city, which is the shopping district. The payment method that dominates in these places definitely exchange from the Old Babylonian period is the money balance, released under the standardized forms of current weight (bars, rings) . He also plays crucial roles as a standard of value and unit of account, which means that we can consider it as a form of currency. Barley grains may have similar functions, but their use as money is less and less common since the last centuries of the third millennium. The karum also formed an institution that gathers the merchants of a city, so a kind of "guild" , led by a chief merchant (Wakil tamkarim) acting on behalf of the king. Merchants could organize themselves into associations to finance short-term commercial operations, as the association-tapptum contained in the Code of Hammurabi , who sees a donor give money to a commercial agent, the partners must then share the benefit equally . Some Babylonians also engage in financial activities private. The Code of Hammurabi legislate on lending activities (in case of reimbursement problems, or loan guarantees). Interest rates could rise to 20% for loans of money and 33% 1 / 3 for food . The products sold locally are mostly various foodstuffs, raw materials or fabrics such as wool, sold in part by the palace as seen above. Metals should instead be sought outside of Mesopotamia, but there is little about their business for that period in Babylonia. Trade in the Persian Gulf , which was used to import copper from Dilmun ( Bahrain ), declines in the period of Babylonian rule when he was instrumental in developing southern cities like Larsa and Ur in previous periods. To the north, the city of Sippar becomes a place of prime importance for the import of foreign products in Babylonia, and also exports textiles to the Assyrians , like Babylon . The ancient Mesopotamians believed that human beings had been created by the gods to serve . The main Mesopotamian deities are the product of a long evolution. They may designate by name Sumerian name or Akkadian if they differ, and their places of worship are located in the main city of which they are patrons . The great god Enlil is seen as the king of gods, lord of the Air, a provider of earthly royalty, holding the tablets of destiny who decide the fate of men. His great temple is located in the holy city of Nippur. It is a "triad" with his father Anu , the god of heaven, whose main place of worship is to Uruk , and his brother Enki / Ea , god of the abyss, the god of wisdom and magic, venerated at Eridu. Then there is the great celestial deities: Nanna / Sin , the moon god whose main temple is at Ur , and his children Utu / Shamash the sun god, god of justice, patron deity of Larsa and Sippar , and the goddess Inanna / Ishtar , the planet Venus , goddess of love and war that the great temple at Uruk. You can add Ishkur / Adad , god of the storm and therefore fertility. Then come warlike deities as the god Ninurta native of Nippur or Zababa revered Kish. The chief gods of the underworld are Ereshkigal , queen of the underworld, and his consort Nergal. The tutelary deity of Babylon , Marduk , minor status before the assertion of this kingdom, is gaining importance as and when the power increases and the Babylonian temple, the Esagil is the subject of numerous donations . Besides that, the Mesopotamians believed that the world was inhabited by a group of supernatural beings, demons protective or harmful, which could act on behalf of the gods, especially to punish a person who has not met the divine order. The main place of worship is the temple, earthly residence of the deity, who is in the form of a statue she really going to live. The latter is in the main room of the sanctuary, the "holy of holies" or cella. In the Old Babylonian period is more room available in which the oblong altar or niche where the statue is facing the entrance, which opens onto a courtyard organizing traffic in the building. This provision will remain dominant until the end of the Babylonian civilization . It is held there most of the rituals of worship of deities who are "resident" in the temple. In the latter, where its proximity, there is a suite of rooms and buildings used for worship: offices, shops, kitchens, further workshops, staff residences of worship which can be grouped in a same neighborhood. The main sacred complex is dominated by a ziggurat , a monument to which degree the symbolic and exact function remains obscure. The daily maintenance of the gods in the sanctuary takes different forms : an interview food (drinks and food) and clothing, purification of the sanctuary of the temple and the statue, and a celebration accompanied by various rituals at songs and music. The offerings to the gods come from individuals, and priority of the king. There may be foods, clothing, furniture, objets d'art, real estate, etc.. The sovereign has over the role of building and restoring temples . The liturgical calendar of the different cities of Lower Mesopotamia was also marked by rituals and religious festivals more or less grandiose, some involving the conduct of their sovereign. Le personnel des temples est gnralement divis entre le personnel charg du culte et le personnel charg de l'administration du patrimoine du temple, qui peut tre trs important comme vu plus haut . Mais la sparation entre les deux n'est pas forcment rigide, d'autant plus que les richesses du temple sont destines en grande partie son culte. Les prtres chargs du culte ordinaire sont dsigns sous le terme SANGA / , et sont dirigs par un chef. Ils peuvent tre assists par des prtres spcialiss : les qui semblent s'occuper de l'entretien de la statue de la divinit, ou encore les lamentateurs ( ) et chantres ( ) qui participent aux rituels, avant tout par leurs chants. Il existait galement un personnel religieux fminin. Les mieux connues pour cette priode sont les , religieuses attaches un dieu et vivant recluses dans une sorte de clotre ( ), attestes notamment Sippar et Nippur . Enfin, certains prtres non rattachs des temples taient spcialiss dans des rituels diffrents, savoir les exorcismes ou la divination, gnralement par hpatoscopie (lecture des messages des dieux dans les entrailles de moutons) . Un cas de prophtisme inspir par le dieu Marduk est galement connu Babylone sous le rgne de Hammurabi. Ces activits intressaient de trs prs le roi, qui devait garder un contact rgulier avec le monde divin. Ce personnel peut tre rmunr par des rations d'entretien fournies par le temple, ou bien en recevant une partie des offrandes faites au dieu, ou encore par la concession de terres agricoles appartenant au sanctuaire, dont ils tirent leurs revenus . Une partie des charges cultuelles pouvait tre segmente et concde plusieurs personnes qui s'en rpartissaient l'exercice chacun leur tour ( BALA ) pour une dure variable : c'est le systme dsign sous le terme de prbende. Il peut s'agir de personnes charges de la prparation des aliments offerts la divinit, ou bien de celles charges de l'entretien de la statue ou des lieux sacrs du temple. Les charges de prbendes taient rmunres, et pouvaient mme tre loues. Literary works of the Old Babylonian period we have received are from a middle of scribes who inherited a tradition introduced in previous millennia, based on the use of writing cuneiform and Language Sumerian was still in the early second millennium when she learned the language had ceased to be spoken. The scribes are formed following practices well known to the Old Babylonian period thanks to the many school tablets excavated at Nippur , Sippar and Ur . Despite this, we note that these works are often known from copies from the schools of learning of the scribes. The literature of the period Babylonian incorporates the Sumerian heritage, including traditions of the period the Third Dynasty of Ur (2112-2004) and his hymns dedicated to rulers and shrines . Under the kings of Isin and Larsa prior Babylonian domination, new works are still written in Sumerian. Under Hammurabi and his descendants, in Akkadian literature takes over, even if it retains the Sumerian literary genres. The Code of Hammurabi, for example, is the heir of casebooks written in Sumerian, and is a hymn to the glory of the king and his sense of justice. Hymns to the gods are written in paleo-Babylonian kings: Prayer to the gods of the night and the Hymn to Ishtar of the king Ammi-ditana. Epic texts reflecting on the limits of the human condition, including lack of access to eternal life and the inevitability of death, are developed from older myths: the Myth of Etana , the Myth of Adapa and the famous Epic of Gilgamesh , the first version is dated to that time, or the Ballad of Heroes of yore, a version known by Sumerian and Akkadian another. You can add the Atra-Hasis , resumption of the myth of the Flood. The kind of lexical lists been booming at the time, and is represented in the corpus of school texts, including lists which appear bilingual Sumerian / Akkadian helping them learn the language first. There are older versions, not yet fixed, canonical lists of major developed at the mid-Babylonian period . The middle Babylonian scholar has also produced a set of technical texts Focus (reserved for specialists in certain disciplines), showing his thoughts "scientific," a term that has a wide meaning in this context because they can include subjects that seem TODAY 'hui unscientific as divination or magic . It is actually a grouping of a set of intellectual practices under which locates a similar way of thinking, rationality peculiar to the ancient Babylonians, reflecting their worldview, whether it relates to thoughts that seem TODAY 'hui irrational at first. As in other areas of culture, the texts "scientists" of the Old Babylonian period, primarily from the school, are placed in line with those of previous periods, while it is crucial innovations. Thus, compilations of astronomical observations for divination develop at this period , although this discipline is still very important because the practice of divination is most prevalent when the hepatoscopy as seen above. The status of certain disciplines such as medicine is poorly known for this period, primarily based around a few incantations for therapeutic purposes . The scientific discipline knows the most important development in the Old Babylonian period is mathematics, since it is generally accepted that there was a stagnation in this area during the later periods of Mesopotamian history. As for writing, the curriculum of learning mathematics can be reconstructed . The Mesopotamians distinguished from the Fourth Millennium varied between metrology systems to quantify (the skills, weights, surfaces or lengths), and a system of sexagesimal notation (base 60) for performing positional calculations, whose results could then be converted into units of measurement. Different texts helped the assimilation of these systems: metrological lists, tables, digital and conversion tables between sexagesimal system and measurement systems. Exercises starting from concrete examples that were intended (construction, agricultural work) allowed the training of apprentice scribes who then used their experience in the management of economic institutions. The most advanced knowledge of this period were largely the domain of algebra and numerical computation (problem solving up to eighth grade, algorithms , computing power , etc.).. One of the most famous building of the "mathematicians" is the Babylonian tablet Plimpton 322 , a list of Pythagorean triples , showing mastery of the Pythagorean theorem a thousand years before Pythagoras, . If Mesopotamian art of the early second millennium is rather well documented, works from the Babylonian kingdom are few. One form of art best known sculpture is the clay . They often represent deities, with their symbols, and mythological scenes and sometimes profane or erotic scenes. These objects were probably the most accessible to the people of Babylon. They have been offered to temples, or have had a protective function in homes or have been used in worship of images of small shrines. This is probably the art form that is less elitist known. The stone sculpture of the Old Babylonian period shows the artistic codes taken during previous centuries, unoriginal. There are examples of bas-reliefs on stelae as the one who dominates the stele of the Code of Hammurabi showing the king standing in prayer before the god Shamash seated on a throne. Two other sculptures are perhaps the same sovereign: a limestone stele dedicated by an official royal goddess Ashratum, fragmentary, and a head that belonged to a statue in the round in diorite whose body was lost, representing a King idealized without expression . Statuettes glassy material, commonly called "china" are also known. Metal statuettes were also made by the artisans of the time, the most notable being the "worshiping of Larsa , in Copper partially plated with gold. It represents a person raising his knee hand gesture of homage to the god Amurru which she was doomed by a Lu-Nanna "for the life of Hammurabi" . Other metal statues, depicting praying or animals, also demonstrate the level of mastery achieved by the founders and goldsmiths of Lower Mesopotamia at this period . They control for several centuries techniques such as keying, welding and watermark , and it shows in the gold jewelry they make, including pins and pendants and pendants representing divine symbols (crescent moon, solar disk, lightning) or protective goddesses following an international style common at that period . Regarding the etrog , his preferred medium is then the cylinder seal characteristic of civilization Mesopotamia , which is growing strongly in the Old Babylonian period with the proliferation of legal acts that served to authenticate . These cylinders are cut in several types of stones: the hematite mainly, but also the carnelian , the chlorite , the serpentinite , the agate , the rock crystal , the limestone , etc.. The artisans who specialize in the production of seal-cylinders, lapicides have developed in the early second millennium better techniques for working stone, including perforation. Representations that are etched on cylinder seals, thought to be able to run continuously, often adopt a type of religious scene already in the current period of Ur III , depicting the king in whose service is the keeper of the seal ( whose name is often written), in praying position, facing the protective deities (the goddesses Lama), or important deities of the pantheon as Shamash and Ishtar. The reign of Samsu-ditana (1625-1595) was the last of the First Dynasty of Babylon, but also one of the most poorly understood . The economic crisis in Babylonia is still unresolved, and the kingdom is still declining. Later Mesopotamian tradition relates that the fall of Babylon occurs then dated according to the chronology average of 1595, is due to an attack by the Hittites , who came from Anatolia Central, led by their king Mursili ist. This decision has long been seen as the consequence of a sudden raid, but sources suggest that recently published Samsu-ditana faces many opponents in the years before his fall, including the Elamites , the Hurrian and Kassites which are the other rising powers and future major kingdoms of the next period. The Hittite attack would therefore conclude that a period of serious crisis. It does not in any case lasting domination by the invaders, and leaves room for new goals, among which are those of the kings Kassites who eventually triumph. This dynasty, of foreign origin, is one of the major moments of Mesopotamian history, known as the first part of the so-called "mid-Babylonian" . It remains unclear, because this period has left few sources, and these were only partially published. The chronology until the late fourteenth century is very uncertain, and socio-economic we are even less well known than for other periods. Yet we must not minimize the importance of the dynasty Kassite. She sees the finalization of the power of Babylon over all the old country of Sumer and Akkad, who became the country "Karduniash, Babylonia, through the maintenance of the dynasty in power the longest of the history of this kingdom. From Kassites anyone wants to dominate southern Mesopotamia must reign in Babylon. This stability is remarkable because it is the only Babylonian dynasty whose power is not based on inheritance of one or two reigns brilliant founders followed a gradual decline. In 1595, the Babylonian ruler Samsu-ditana is defeated by Mursili I , king of the Hittites, who seized the statue of Marduk located in the Esagil , the great temple of Babylon, and prevails in his country. The loss means the end of a dynasty already weakened by several rivals including Kassites. According to the Babylonian King List is Agum II, which would be the tenth ruler of the dynasty of kings Kassite (founded by a Gandash, which would have reigned no one knows where in the second half of the eighteenth century), s' seizes Babylon after the sack of the city by the Hittites. The first sovereign Kassite attested as king of Babylon seems Buriash Burna-I . This dynasty to rival that of the Country of the Sea, located south of Babylonia, which was defeated in the early fifteenth century by Ulam-Buriash and Agum III. From that time, the preponderance of Babylon in southern Mesopotamia is no longer contested, and the sovereign Kassite are masters of the country of Sumer and Akkad, which became the country Kardunia (Kassite term equivalent to Babylonia) This makes them one of the great powers in the Middle East. The only significant territorial gains made by rulers Kassite after that is the island of Bahrain , then known as Dilmun , which was found a seal in the name of a Babylonian governor of the island even if we know nothing about the duration of this rule . The fourteenth and thirteenth century marked the apogee of the dynasty in Babylonia Kassite. Its kings are the equals of the great rulers of the period, those of Egypt , the Hittites , the Mitanni and of Assyria , with whom they established diplomatic relations in which they have the privilege of carrying the title "great king" ( arru rabu) , marked by extensive correspondence and exchange of gifts (ulmnu) . This system, primarily evidenced by the Amarna letters Egypt and Hattusa the Hittite capital , and maintained by envoys called Mar SIPRI important for luxury products, including many gold and precious metals traded in a system of donations and gifts-cons, more or less respected by some sovereign (which is not without cause small voltages), as gifts of friendship, or exchanged compliments at the enthronement of a king. It is the Akkadian Babylonian (in the form called "mid-Babylonian") which is the language of diplomacy, in continuity with the previous period. The dynastic marriages performed during this period, and the kings Kassite participate actively. Buriash Burna-II and married a daughter to the Egyptian Amenhotep IV / Akhenaten and another in the Hittite Suppiluliuma II , while he married the daughter of the Assyrian king Assur-uballit I. . Babylonian princesses also married to sovereign Elamite . It aims to strengthen links between different courts, and in two cases to ease political tensions. Babylon finds himself embroiled in a series of conflicts with Assyria when Assur-uballit I , Assyrian ruler, is freed from the domination of Mitanni to 1365. This is the beginning of the centuries-old confrontation between the southern and northern Mesopotamia . Buriash Burna-II (1359-1333) saw the beginning of a dim view of the independence of Assyria as it considers the latter as one of his vassals. But eventually he married the daughter of the Assyrian king, who bears him a son, Karahardash. The latter ascended the throne about 1333, but was immediately assassinated and Nazi-Bugash ascends the throne. Assur-uballit I reacts and invaded Babylon to enthrone his other grand-son, Kurigalzu II (1332-1308), who is faithful as he lives, but then causes the next Assyrian king, Enlil-nerari. It follows a series of conflicts lasting more than a century, culminating in the confrontation between Kashtiliash IV (1232-1225) and Tukulti-Ninurta I , the latter managing to invade and destroy Babylon. The situation becomes increasingly confused as the Assyrians did not succeed in establishing a lasting domination of Babylon and the conflict continues. It gets worse when the king Elamite Kidin Hutran- III mingles with the game: it devastates Nippur and makes it difficult for the rulers imposed by the Assyrians on the throne of Babylon, who were overthrown, one after the other until 1217. After the assassination of Tukulti-Ninurta in 1208 and internal disturbances that shook the Assyrian thereafter, the kings of Babylon manage to regain their autonomy, and that even the Babylonian king Marduk-apla-iddina I (1171 - 1159) that helps the Assyrian Ninurta-RPLA-Ekur to take power in the northern kingdom, before it will backfire against him without success . After these conflicts, Babylonia and Assyria are weakened, when the armies Elamite hand over foot in Mesopotamia , led by their king -Shutruk Nahhunte who ascended the throne in 1185. The literature on Kassite period is sparse compared to the previous period, and focuses primarily on the fourteenth and thirteenth centuries. In addition, it has mainly been little studied, and there is little information on the socio-economic Babylonia at that time . The largest corpus consists of a batch of 12,000 tablets found at Nippur , which have been little studied and published. Archives were found in limited quantities at other sites. In addition to these sources kudurru (see below) and a few royal inscriptions. King Kassite is designated by several titles: the new "King of Karduniash" (sar mast kardunia), alongside the more traditional "king of the four regions" (Sar KISSATA), "King of Sumer and Akkad," or the original "akkanakku (administrative title) of Enlil" which adorns one of the two kings named Kurigalzu . The first title indicates that the king now sees itself as the master of a territory comprising the whole of Babylonia. It incorporates the traditional attributes of the Mesopotamian monarchy: he is a warrior-king , the supreme judge of the kingdom and a builder taking particular care of the traditional deities of the temples of Mesopotamia . Contributions Kassite seem therefore limited. The names of rulers are Kassite at the beginning of the dynasty, referring to the gods of this people as Buriash, or Maruttash Harb, and thereafter they mix terms Kassite and Akkadian. The royal dynasty is placed under the protection of a pair of deities proper Kassite, and Shuqamuna Shumaliya, who have a temple in Babylon where kings are crowned perhaps . The entire royal family is involved in the exercise of high office: a brother of King leads an army, a king's son becomes high priest of the god Enlil. Among the royal entourage, new titles appear, like akruma Kassite is original and seems to denote a military commander or the kartappu which is originally a horse driver. If the organization of the army Kassite is very poorly known, there is at least this time acquired a major change in military technology with the emergence of light chariot and employment of horses that seem to be specialties Kassite . Among the dignitaries, traditional sukkallu ("Ministers"), vague term, are still present. The duties of all his characters are poorly defined and probably unstable. In any case, the Kassites have integrated many dignitaries from Babylonia and did not seek to monopolize power for them. The province is best known . The kingdom is divided into provinces (phatu), headed by governors generally called Sakin Matias or aknu, you may add any tribal territories led by a beautiful biti discussed below. The governor of Nippur is titled G.EN.NA particular, and has perhaps more power than others, the problem is that it is the only one to be well known because of the abundance of archives found on this site for the period Kassite. Successive governors often within the same family. At the local level, villages and cities are administered by a "mayor" (hazannu). Its functions have a court appearance, even if there are judges (dayynu) . The subjects should pay taxes to the royal power, or perform chores for her account, and sometimes some of their property requisitioned. We know these contributions mainly because they are mentioned in the kudurrus that exempt certain lands . Kassite period saw the emergence of innovations in the administrative organization, which are to some extent from Kassite traditions. Some jurisdictions are called "houses" (Akkadian tai), led by a chief (bel biti, "householder"), and generally claiming a common ancestor of the eponymous group. This has long been interpreted as a way of organizing tribal Kassite, each tribe having a territory it administers. This view was recently challenged, and it was proposed to see in these "houses" of the family estates inherited from an ancestor, a kind of province that would complement the administrative grid already mentioned, and whose head is appointed by the king . Economic institutions are still dominant in Babylonia "large bodies", palaces and temples . But apart from the case of land the Governor of Nippur , we are poorly documented in these institutions. One of the few aspects of the economic organization of the period for which Kassite we are well informed is that of land donations made by King, pending the release of thousands of unpublished tablets can help to improve our knowledge of this period. This is a particular phenomenon that appears to be initiated at this time, since for the previous period the land was granted on a non-final. These transactions are marked on kudurrus About forty were found for the dynasty Kassite. These stelae divided into several sections: a description of the gift, with the rights and duties of the beneficiary of the donation (tax, chores, exemptions), curses, and often sculptural reliefs. The kudurrus were probably originally placed in temples, under divine protection. Usually the gift for a very wide area, 80 to 1 000 hectares (with an average of 250 ha). The beneficiaries were senior officials operating in the entourage of King officials, members of the court or the royal family, generals, priests. The gift was probably made as a reward for the loyalty of the person, or any act having distinguished. The great temples of Babylonia also received important areas: the Esagil , the temple of Marduk in Babylon , has received nearly 5,000 acres at this time. Sometimes the gifts were accompanied by tax exemptions or chores. In the best cases, the recipient had the same power over the local population, which was substituted for that of the provincial administration, against whom he was protected by special clauses. This was near a feudal practice. It is undoubtedly true, and we should not consider such donations challenged the traditional economic system of Babylon has never been strictly feudal, although there was strong local authorities by the time . The donations have not affected the majority of the land continued to be managed within the principles outlined in the previous period, and that the sovereign can not alienate. The economy of Babylonia Kassite is still poorly understood. The situation in rural areas is unclear because the sources are very limited outside of the little we learn kudurrus and some shelves economic period, primarily from Nippur. The archaeological surveys conducted in several parts of the plain of Lower Mesopotamia indicate that the recovery is slow after the crisis of the late Old Babylonian period that saw the number of sites decreases strongly. The phenomenon of re-occupation of habitats is real, but it emphasizes the small villages and rural towns become dominant, while urban sites that previously dominated their area are reduced, suggesting a process of "ruralization" which marks a break in the history of the region . This may accompany a decline in agricultural production, perhaps be exacerbated in some areas like that of Uruk by moving streams . Donations of land made by King seem to be primarily on land located on the margins of the cultivated area, which may reflect a desire to regain the space that has become barren since the end of the previous period. We also see the royal administration to be active in the exploitation of areas of intensive cultivation in the vicinity of Nippur . The crafts and local trade we also largely beyond. Archives Kurigalzu Hard- show delivery of raw materials (metals, stone) to craftsmen working on behalf of a temple , which corresponds to an everyday situation in the organization of the craft of Mesopotamia old. It seems that the long-distance trade is sufficiently developed, particularly to the Persian Gulf ( Dilmun / Bahrain ) and the Levant. The Amarna letters show that the King is interested in the fate of Babylonian merchants in business until Palestine , but we can not say whether this indicates that these merchants (always called tamkru) work in part or in whole for the Palace . The diplomatic exchanges between the royal courts, without being treated as trade itself, contribute to the movement of goods across international elites. Thus, the diplomatic relations maintained by the cordial Kassites with Egypt appear to have brought an influx of gold important in Babylonia, which would have to base the price on the gold standard and not the money for the only time history of Mesopotamia Ancient . For his part, Babylonia exports to its western neighbors ( Egypt , Syria , Anatolia ) of lapis lazuli , which is already at an import from Afghanistan , and also horses whose breeding seems to be a specialty of Kassites well attested in the texts of Nippur , even if these animals are born probably in the mountainous regions of eastern and north-eastern Mesopotamia . Le panthon msopotamien de la priode kassite ne subit pas de modifications profondes par rapport la priode prcdente. Cela est visible sur le bas-relief du kudurru de Melishipak II conserv actuellement au Muse du Louvre . Les divinits invoques en tant que garantes de la donation de terre que consacre cette stle sont reprsentes suivant une organisation fonctionnelle et hirarchique : le sommet est ainsi occup par les symboles des divinits qui dominent traditionnellement le panthon msopotamien ( Anu , Sn , Shamash , Enlil , Ishtar , Ea / A>). In general, the rulers Kassite melt into the mold Mesopotamian religious. But the preponderance of cultural Babylon and the expanding role of the clergy of its main temple, the Esagil , tend to make the tutelary deity of the city, Marduk , the largest of the Babylonian pantheon of gods late in the period Kassite Instead of Enlil . Known as a small temple of 14 x 18 meters and original decor made in the Eanna of Uruk during the reign of Kara-indash , and work done under Burna-II Buriash Ebabbar in the temple of the god Shamash at Larsa. But it is also one of the two kings named Kurigalzu (rather the first) which was illustrated by the construction or restoration of several temples of the great cities of Babylonia , including major religious centers : Babylon , Nippur , Akkad , Kish , Sippar , Ur , Uruk , and his city-new Hard-Kurigalzu where a ziggurat dedicated to Enlil is built, among others. This is accompanied by the patronage of the cult of deities worshiped in these temples. By taking the traditional role of protector and provider Babylonian king of the cult of gods, kings Kassite in fact play a crucial role as they restore the normal functioning of many of these sanctuaries that had ceased to function following the abandonment of several sites major southern Babylonia at the end of the Old Babylonian period ( Nippur , Ur , Uruk , Eridu ). The textbooks of the period Kassite found at Nippur show that the structures of learning of the scribes and scholars remain similar to those of the Old Babylonian period . But a change in size is: Now the texts Akkadian are included in the curriculum, which accompanies the evolution of Mesopotamian literature that is becoming increasingly written in that language, although Sumerian remained employed. The period also saw Kassite the development of the " Babylonian standard, literary form of Akkadian that remains fixed for centuries in literature, and therefore can be considered a "classic" form of this language . Now, new Mesopotamian literary works are written only in this dialect. The period Kassite indeed sees the development of several fundamental works of Mesopotamian literature , especially the standardization and canonization of works from previous periods that circulated previously in several variants . Babylonian scholars deepen the reflections on the relationship between gods and men, which leads to the achievement of major works of Mesopotamian literature sapiential : the suffering of the righteous Monologue (ludlul nmeqi fine), and perhaps the Dialogue of Pessimism ( possibly written later). These texts are wondering about the origin of misfortune just beating people and the sense of the divine. A Hymn to Shamash , which is one of the most remarkable of ancient Mesopotamia and another dedicated to Gula are also dating from this period. The standard version of the Epic of Gilgamesh is developed around this time, and attributed by tradition to the Mesopotamian Sin-exorcist-leqe uninni living Uruk . The canonical version of many lexical lists is also fixed to that point . Kassite period is crucial to the history of Mesopotamian literature, and perhaps for this reason that the families of priests of the next millennium look for an ancestor among the scholars supposed to have been active in this period . As for the rest of culture, the arrival of Kassites did not alter the architectural and artistic traditions Babylonian . Few residential neighborhoods of this era have been unearthed at sites Babylonians, Ur , Nippur and Dur-Kurigalzu , where we do not see any significant change compared to the previous period. In contrast, the sacred architecture of the period, though unknown, seems to show some innovation . The small shrine built in Kara-indash in the complex of the Eanna has a facade decorated with molded bricks contained protective deities of water, type of ornamentation is an innovation of the period. But architecture is best represented in official Hard-Kurigalzu , new town built at the instigation of one of two kings named Kurigalzu and shows the large size of its main buildings a new milestone was reached in the monumental . Part of a vast palace complex of 420,000 square meters, organized around several units there been uncovered . Some rooms are decorated with paintings which fragments were found. South-east of the palace was a series dedicated to worship Enlil , dominated by a ziggurat whose ruins still stand at over 57 meters high. Other temples were built on the site . The carving on stone is best for the period represented by Kassite reliefs adorning kudurrus already mentioned several times, whose iconography is particularly interesting . It includes symbols of the deities of the legal guarantee attached to the stele, which are greatly developed by the artists of this period and will replace the anthropomorphic representations of deities, allowing to include a maximum of deities on a minimum space. Sculptors, however, continue to make pictorial representations of these characters on stelae, in the continuity of those of previous periods: the kudurru of Melishipak II thus represents the king, holding hands his daughter to whom he donated a domain reported in the text of the stele, and presenting it to the goddess Nanaya , guarantor of the act, sitting on a throne. Above are shown the symbols of astral deities Sin ( Crescent Moon ), Shamash ( disk solar ) and Ishtar (the morning star, Venus ). The use of glasses is growing much in the second half of the second millennium, with the technique of enamel glaze in different colors (blue, yellow, orange, brown) . It is used to produce vases, but also architectural elements of clay covered with glaze, such as tiles and bricks found at Aqar Quf. Early forms of glass also appear at this time, and this technique is found in art with decorative cups made by mosaics. The themes of the etrog know several developments during the second half of the second millennium . The type of seal that dominates early resumed the tradition of the previous period: it combines a goddess sitting and praying, the text accompanying the picture, well developed, consisting of a votive prayer. Subsequently develops a more original style, depicting a central character, hero, god on a mountain or a demon, surrounded by floral motifs. In the style later, probably developed after the Kassite imaging is dominated by animals and associated with trees, surrounded by strips of triangles. Kassite period marks the peak of the spread of culture Mesopotamian history in the ancient Near East , which is manifested primarily through the dissemination of practice and the cuneiform of Akkadian in its so-called "mid-Babylonian "is one that is then made by the scribes of Babylonia and imitated in other countries in the Middle East. Akkadian was the lingua franca, so all that space, as illustrated in the diplomatic correspondence found in Tell el-Amarna in Egypt , in Ugarit in Syria and Hattusa in Anatolia , mostly all written in that language - even if it s often accompanied by "barbarians" - which is only to be understood by the scribes of the banks of the Nile to the Elam . This diffusion of the practice of cuneiform Akkadian language and requires the training of scribes in the writing and the language, and often also in Sumerian. This explains why there are places for training of scribes following a course similar to that performed in Babylonia, often with Mesopotamian literary texts, including the Epic of Gilgamesh : this has been studied in Syria Ugarit and Emar , and more broadly throughout the Levant and in Egypt with the textbooks of el-Amarna and Anatolia , where the scribes came directly from Babylonia and also of Assyria have been identified in court Hittite , thus playing a direct role in the transmission of Mesopotamian culture in place even if it is rather arrive via Syria . Assyria, already culturally close to southern Mesopotamia, is also open to cultural influences Babylonian, for example by introducing the worship of the god Marduk and the party- akitu typical of Lower Mesopotamia . From 1200, the Elam , where the new dynasty known as Shutrukides took power, became increasingly threatening . Around 1160, while Marduk-apla-iddina had managed to stabilize the power to Babylon , the Elamite -Shutruk Nahhunte attack invading Babylonia and plundered its cities. During this period several major monuments of Mesopotamian history are brought into the capital Elamite, Susa , as the Stele of victory of Naram-Sin of Akkad or stele of the Code of Hammurabi , as well as statues and steles of different periods, including kudurrus Kassite. After several years of resistance led by sovereign Kassite, following the Elamite king, Kutir-Nahhunte III , bringing the death blow to that dynasty around 1155, and he takes the statue of the god Marduk in Elam as a symbol of submission to Babylon. The fall of the dynasty Kassite marks the beginning of a long period of torment for the Babylonian kingdom, alternating phases of recovery and decline phases, especially during the serious crisis that strikes at the turn of Babylonia first millennium . Migration of new people ( Syrians , Chaldeans ) are fundamentally changing the ethnic landscape of Babylonia on the edge of the first millennium. Erasure chronic power Babylonian period is contrasted with the progressive affirmation of that of its rival Assyrian gradually establishing its domination over southern Mesopotamia as it does elsewhere in the Middle East , even if it did 'ever comes to stabilize its hold on Babylonia . Having dethroned the Kassites the Elamites continuing momentum in the reign of Shilhak-Inshushinak , progressing north to Arrapha , after seizing the eastern provinces of Assyria . In southern Babylonia, a new dynasty is emerging, known as the Second Dynasty of Isin , "around the city . One of its kings, Nebuchadnezzar I (1126-1105), launches a war against the Elamite king next Hutelutush-Inshushinak he wins after two offensives, thereby washing the affront to his country. His grand-son Marduk-Nadin-ahhe attack Assyria, but his opponent Tiglath-Pileser I pushes and invaded Babylonia, where he is unable to stabilize its power . From the reign of Adad-apla-iddina (1068-1047), who seized power in Babylon, perhaps as a result of theft, Babylonia faced incursions by tribes of Arameans , mixed with the nomadic Suteans, and develop gradually and eventually destroy several major cities ( Dur-Kurigalzu , Sippar , Nippur , Uruk ) . According to the Babylonian King List, the last king of the Second Dynasty of Isin, Nabu-sum-liburi , died in 1024, heralding a long period of instability of power in Babylon while the Aramaic incursions are becoming more urgent. Monarchical institutions of this period echo those of the dynasty Kassite . The Kings continue to donate land to the dignitary and temples, always noted on kudurrus. From this period, these stelae commemorate also private documents such as land sales or the granting of a dowry to a girl, reported by the "Caillou Michaux," an early Babylonian documents have been reported to in Europe . Incursions and Aramaic Suteans become recurrent As the Babylonian power is crumbling. The Babylonian King List mentions several dynasties succeeding that of Isin II: A native of Sea countries to the south of Babylonia, another native of Bazi , a town on the Tigris , another apparently consists of a single character of original Elamite, Mar-biti-apla-usur , then a " Dynasty E "which is a little more durable than previous ones but is better known . This reflects a situation of chronic instability Babylonia plunging into chaos, without political stability, marked by destruction and famine. It is this period which probably inspired the priest Kabti-ili-Marduk, living in the ninth or eighth century, the text of the Epic of Erra , which tells how Erra, the god of destructive war, managed to remove Marduk in Babylonia by ruse, then subjecting the region to outbreaks and massacres, before being calmed by his vizier Ishuma, and the return of Marduk reinstates the order . Babylonia in the late tenth century is a country considerably weakened . The Suteans continue to attack the North, Aramaic tribes are located south and east, and a new group, the Chaldeans , settled in southern Babylonia, including the marsh area, but also around Babylon. The holder of the title of king of Babylon is struggling to enforce its authority outside of this city and some other cities located in its vicinity. A major milestone occurs at the same time Assyria: Adad-nerari II takes power, and turn the situation in his country who had also been weakened by the Syrians, before launching an attack in Babylonia, where reigns Shamash-mudammiq is defeated. The early ninth century saw Babylon stabilize the instigation of Nabu-shum-ukin (899-888), which cons-attack against Assyria . His successor, Nabu-apla-idinna (888-855) empowers Babylonian tribes face Suteans particular. But the dynamic is reversed when the next king, Marduk-zakir-shumi (854-819), faces a succession crisis, his brother trying to overthrow him. He then appealed to the Assyrian Shalmaneser III to resolve the situation. This helps fight the rebels, and even continues its offensive to the south, against the Chaldean tribes. While the Assyrians in a position of strength, the situation turns around a few years later when the Assyrian Shamsi-Adad V is in turn appeal to Marduk-zakir-shumi to quell a revolt. The Babylonian help win the victory, and becomes her protector. But soon Marduk-zakir-shumi death in 818, the Assyrian king attacks the new king of Babylon , Marduk-balassu iqbi (818-813), and overcomes the first time, before returning to Babylon in 813 to finish with his opponent. A Babylonian named Baba iddina-ah- tent to lead the resistance against the invader, but it quickly defeated. At the same time, Shamsi-Adad V fights the Chaldeans and receives their homage. These appear as a rising power in Babylon, because of their organization more centralized than other tribes, tribal confederations based on combined into five "houses" (tai) governed by a character styled "king", and dominating a particular territory. The most powerful are the Bit Ammukni located in Babylonia from the east around to Uruk , the Bit Dakkri located in the north to Borsippa and bit Yakin at the far south of Babylonia in the Land of the Sea . Several kings of these homes are able to ascend the throne of Babylon in the eighth century by taking advantage of the dynastic instability in the region which is put after 811. The first is Eriba-Marduk (769-761) of Bit Yakin, succeeded Nabu-shum-ishkun (760-748) of the ILO Dakkri, who do no better than the Babylonian kings to stabilize the country. When this is the Babylonian Nabonassar who took power in 747, he appealed to the Assyrian Tiglath-Pileser III to help defeat the Arameans and Chaldeans . The latter accepts and deporting opponents Nabonassar north. He took the opportunity to establish tight control over Babylon, which became a protectorate of Assyria. But the son of Nabonassar, Nabu-nadin-ZERI , was overthrown by a man named Nabu-shum-ukin II , which is in turn defeated by the Chaldean Nabu-mukin-ZERI , resulting in Bit Ammukni, all in the space two years, from 733 to 731. Tiglath-Pileser III, who loses the control he exercised over Babylon, decides to intervene in the South and reverses Nabu-mukin-ZERI Shapiya while looting the capital of Bit Ammukni. He decides to go himself on the throne of Babylon, under the name Pulu. From 728, Assyria was master of Babylonia. The archives from Nippur, dating from this period show that the economic activities of the city is recovering, although it was virtually abandoned during the crisis of the tenth century . The authorities of the city's first governor Kudurru have broad autonomy with respect to the king of Babylon at the time, Nabonassar , have an area like the temples, are sometimes trade up in the Zagros , and Aramaic and Chaldean tribes come to trade in the neighboring town. The testimonials and surveys in the region of Uruk give an impression of the same demographic and economic recovery spotted during the Assyrian domination, particularly in regions where the tribes Chaldeans , who live largely in agricultural villages . We can therefore draw for this time a picture of a country with a progressive increase of population in urban and rural sites, probably accompanied by economic growth, initiating a movement that continues throughout the first millennium. This periodization remains to establish with more certainty, especially because of inaccuracies in the archaeological surveys . Two years after taking power, Tiglath Pileser III / Pulu dies. His son Shalmaneser V continues to prevail both on Assyria and Babylon , where he took the name Ullaiu . The ideal of unification of Assyria and Babylonia is so highly developed among Assyrian kings trying for over a century to stabilize their rule over the southern Mesopotamian in several ways, without ever reaching a sustainable manner . Cities are often torn between pro-Assyrian faction and anti-Assyrian factions, and suffered several sieges, destructions and deportations. Movements of resistance to Assyrian domination are easily formed in Babylonia, especially with the support of the Elamites , who fear the rise of Assyrian, Chaldean and always confederations . When Shalmaneser V was overthrown by Sargon II in 722 in Assyria, the head of the Chaldean tribe of Bit-Yakin, Merodach-Baladan II , grand-son of the ancient Babylonian king Eriba-Marduk , benefits disorder thrown into the realm of north to seize the throne . He submits the entire region, ousting his opponents. Sargon II, occupied elsewhere, let Merodach Baladan-II in peace for twelve years. But in 710 he attacked the Babylonians, Elamites and their allies. It pushes its adversaries toward the south, seized hard-Jachin, the capital of Bit-Yakin, before looting the entire region. Merodach Baladan-II but had time to escape and flee to Elam. Sargon has undertaken a series of peaceful measures to stabilize the situation in Babylonia. He became king of Babylon, and exercises its responsibilities as a local king: he performs rituals like the New Year celebration in this city, he rebuilt the shrines, as the Eanna of Uruk , irrigation canals, and grants debt forgiveness and tax exemptions due to the state (andurru) to several holy cities like Ur and Uruk , . After the death of Sargon II in 705, his son Sennacherib succeeded him. Two years later, Merodach-Baladan back and regained power in Babylon. The Assyrian king sends his troops, but his opponent still eludes them. He returned again in 700, which causes a new invasion of Babylon by the Assyrians, who hunt again, and he took refuge in the swamps of south where it never comes . During these few years, Sennacherib chose to entrust the throne of Babylon to prisoners rather than to proclaim himself king of this town: first the Babylonian Bel Ibni , who was brought to court Assyrian and then, after the latter had been unable to cope with Merodach-Baladan, his eldest son Ashur-Nadin-Shumi . But it holds only five years since he was overthrown by the Babylonians in 694 which deliver the king of Elam, who takes him to his country and it executed. Two Chaldean rulers successively held the power in Babylon: Nergal-ushezib then Mushezib-Marduk. The latter was killed in 689 during the replica of Sennacherib. Exasperated by the fierce resistance of the Babylonians and the death of his eldest son, he decides to deal a fatal blow to the city that causes so much trouble: he ordered the looting and destruction of the city. This event was seen as a sacrilege in Babylonia and Assyria, sometimes, because of the sanctity of the city. At the same time, Sennacherib establishes Assyria a religious program to transfer to his national god Ashur several attributes of the Babylonian god Marduk in which he took the statue to worship Ashur , preventing the exercise of his worship in Babylon and marking the symbolic submission to his kingdom of Babylonia . Sennacherib's reign ends with his assassination organized by his son Arad-Mulissu. It's his other son Esarhaddon who took power in Assyria and Babylonia after a civil war, and ordered the reconstruction of the great monuments destroyed by his father, and the restitution of land lost by the inhabitants of the southern region during these troubled times, charters and grants of franchises (kidinnu) to several cities , . This probably serves to reconcile the inhabitants of the region and may reflect a deference to the holy city outraged. The region also remains calm throughout his reign. At his death, while the throne of Assyria returned to his son Ashurbanipal , is his other son Shamash-shum-ukin who becomes king of Babylon, while being subjected to his brother who does not hesitate to intervene in Babylonian affairs, and leaves him the rest of the control of a limited area in northern Babylonia. Shamash-shum-ukin back in 668 the statue of Marduk in Babylon, allowing the resumption of worship of this god, and the rebuilding of the city ends under his patronage and that of his older brother . After sixteen-year reign in peace, Shamash-shum-ukin, apparently won by the spirit of rebellion Babylonian who mingles with rivalries that have shaken the common Assyrian royal family, rebelled against Ashurbanipal in 652, with the help Chaldean and Elamite . Follows a difficult conflict, a siege of two years under the walls of Babylon, and when the city fell, Shamash-shum-ukin died in the fire palace. A new crackdown and deportations then descend on Babylon, then Elam, whose capital Susa was sacked. Ashurbanipal place on the throne of Babylon some Kandalanu (648-627), perhaps Babylonian extraction. The following years saw peace reign in Babylonia as Elam, who seem unable to act against Assyria. Despite repeated attempts and the various solutions devised by the Assyrian kings, the pacification of Babylonia has consistently failed in the same way as in the Assyrian royal family, and that these two failures is that the combined triggering events leading to the downfall of Assyria. On the death of Ashurbanipal , son Assur-etil-Ilan succeeds him. But the new king's brother, Sin-shar-ishkun king of Babylon as Shamash-shum-ukin before him, while rebels chasing an old Babylonian Assyrian general who had ambitious attempted to seize power The prominence of Marduk in Babylon and the religious The period of the Second Dynasty of Isin and sees the following trends continue cultural begun under the Kassites. It is possible that either at the time of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar I do that is the final affirmation of the supremacy of Marduk at the top of the pantheon, instead of Enlil . With its victory over Elam , the king could bring the statue of the god removed earlier from his great temple of Babylon , the Esagil , which may have been the occasion of this theological change. The god is increasingly called Bel, "Lord." If we date the moment the rule of God is also at this time that the clergy of this sanctuary, which became one of the main places scholars of Babylonia, writes in a fundamental affirmation of the preponderance Marduk: The Epic of Creation (Enuma Elis) . He recounts the various steps that led to the rank of Marduk King of the gods after defeating Tiamat , the mother of gods symbolizing the chaos, and the construction of Babylon in the center of the world by the god himself. This text becomes the first millennium one of the pillars of the Babylonian royal ideology, and is recited every year on the feast-akitu New Year during which the king sees a renewed mandate by the god. Through this narrative, the political supremacy of Babylon is accompanied by a religious supremacy. This is also seen in another text dated to around this time called Tint = Babilu after its incipit (the two terms are synonyms for the city) , describing the location of the shrines of the city, and all religious places (doors and walls named for gods, deified rivers, inland processional). Babylon is portrayed as a truly holy city. Other literary works dating from the late second millennium or the beginning of I, as the Babylonian Theodicy , text sapiential continuing reflection on the relations between men and gods that developed in the period Kassite, or the ' Epic of Erra already mentioned. Besides the conflicting reports with Assyria , Babylon has a religious and cultural influence on neighboring North. Babylonian cults of deities, Marduk and especially Nabu , are common in Assyria . Under Sennacherib , the god Ashur , considered the real ruler of Assyria and the king of the gods in this country, incorporates many aspects of Marduk he is somehow during the Assyrian is drafted and Assyrian version of the Epic of Creation with the Assyrian god for heroes instead of the Babylonian . In the same vein, the royal library of Nineveh is enriched at the time of Ashurbanipal tablets confiscated in the intellectual centers of Babylonia after the suppression of the revolt in that region, or the copy of Babylonian tablets . These factors argue in favor of a fascination with Babylonian culture among the educated elite and Assyrians, who admittedly had a culture very similar to that of Babylonia. The period of the kingdom "neo-Babylonian, from 626 to 539, less than a century, is one in which the power of Babylon was at its peak, constituting a veritable empire taking over the legacy of the Assyrian empire that he shot and dominating the entire Middle East. In reality, this power appears to be primarily the result of Nabopolassar and his son Nebuchadnezzar II , the kingdom without taking some twenty years after his death, succumbing to the blows of the Persian king Cyrus II. However, this period marks the return of economic prosperity in Babylonia, driven in particular by developing the agricultural economy and a vibrant cultural importance, under the auspices of the sovereign. After shooting the Assyrian empire, Nabopolassar, now old, placed in control of military operations to his eldest son Nebuchadnezzar . This leads his armies into Syria at Carchemish , where he defeated the Egyptian army and its allies. When his father died in 605, he returned to Babylon to assert his rights without having secured their domination over Palestine. When he becomes king, Nebuchadnezzar II (604-562) lacks neither experience nor ambition . He returns to the shores of the Mediterranean, and manages to assert his supremacy over the rulers of the kingdoms of Phoenicia , including Ashkelon , and also the king of Judah , and also to the ambitions of the Egyptians in the Levant. After an initial setback, it strengthens its position then won several decisive victories, including the taking of Jerusalem in 597. But the revolts persist, and supported by several revolts broke out after Egypt 589, and Babylonians must conduct several hard seats, which once again that of Jerusalem in 588, and that of Tyre who is thirteen years to fall. The Egyptians are defeated decisively in 568, at which time the Babylonian domination of the Levant is consolidated. Nebuchadnezzar also led his troops in Cilicia , to the Saudi and faces revolts elsewhere, even in Babylonia. The monarch also extended the empire of Babylon to its historical maximum. During all these years, he has also undertaken significant projects in major cities of Mesopotamia mriodionale, continuing the work of rebuilding begun by his father, and first of its capital Babylon , which became the most famous cities of the Orient, whose memory is passed on to posterity. The end of his reign, which ended in 562, is poorly known. After the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II, Babylon can not find political stability, because of too great conflict at the summit of power. These are already evident in a revolt that shook Babylon 594-593 . The son of Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk reigned only two years. He was assassinated in a palace coup led by Nriglissar. The latter was an influential man at the court of Babylon. Having participated in military operations in the time of Nebuchadnezzar II, he held the position of simmagir, was governor of a province to the east, and was again the son of former king. He had little time to reign, probably due to his advanced age. It nevertheless led a campaign in Cilicia, and had built some monuments and restore Babylon. At his death in 556, his younger son Labash-Marduk , son of small-Nebuchadnezzar II by his mother, ascended the throne. He was assassinated the same year of his inauguration by dignitaries of the court. These are the two leaders of the revolt, Nabonidus and his son Belshazzar who took power , . Nabonidus had long been an important figure at the court of Babylon, but he was unlike his predecessors no relationship to Nebuchadnezzar II. It is probably old enough when it comes to power, and perhaps above all to become king that his son Balthazar succeeds him. However, it is sixteen years during which he met many difficulties. Palace revolutions which had shaken the royal court had little impact in the Empire, which remained relatively calm. Once in power, Nabonidus fact that a ruler of Babylon was usual: he worships, renovating buildings, and even leading a campaign in Cilicia. However, it seems to have been disputed, partly because of his religious attitude. Through his mother, he had origins in Harran in Upper Mesopotamia, one of two main places of worship of Sin , the moon god, and he vowed to him more admiration than Marduk , which he draws hostility of the clergy of Babylon. In addition, to solve problems in the management of temples, it increases state control over them, which does not help the situation. In this context of protests, he leaves a campaign in Palestine, before settling for ten years Taima , in Saudi , another major place of worship to the god-moon. The reason for this exile so long is unknown, and various theories are advanced: problem in power, religion, influence of Balthazar, etc.. Anyway, his son Belshazzar who actually governs Babylon during those years without a king. If it appears to have been also a restorer and builder, he has inherited a reputation for being somewhat politically astute, and controversial. When Nabonidus returned in 541, he reorganized his administration and ousted some influential members of the court. But there is undoubtedly much criticized by some elites of the kingdom. The organization of the Babylonian empire is basically identical to that of the Neo-Assyrian empire it replaced, especially that it had roughly the same boundaries as the latter . At the top was the king, in which subjects had to swear an oath of fidelity (the ADE, Assyrian heritage). Joining him at the court, dignitaries were having the same functions in Assyria, with the exception of turtnu (General), who disappears, and the rab aq, the chief butler, replaced by the rab nahatimmu " chef, charging former Assyrian, who held a similar role. While in Assyria the king made and unmade at will around him, consisting mostly of his family, dignitaries Babylonians formed a kind of nobility, known as "Great country of Akkad" in the texts of Nebuchadnezzar II , whose However, we know little, except that they were participating actively in state affairs, archives palatial Babylonian being very limited. The provinces (phti) of Babylonia were administered by governors, often called Bel phti, or aknu, Sakina temi . Local government is partly at the expense of those governors, who must also share many other characters with powers and institutions. Royal commissioners (qpi Ali) are sometimes imposed by the king in some jurisdictions, including the temples. There are still "mayors" (hazannu) towns and villages. The administration of large temples is difficult to separate from that of the cities where they are because they contribute to their management. Meetings (puhru) consisting of local notables and former have a role in local life, especially as a court of justice, although other institutions, including temples, have the legal powers . Outside Babylon, the situation in the provinces of the empire is varied . In some places, there are governors appointed by the Babylonian power. In other realms such as cities keep their own records, and are regarded as vassals of the Empire. The situation may change over time: the kingdom of Judah 's king to keep his revolt under Nebuchadnezzar II, who then installs a governor at his convenience, but of local origin. The neo-Babylonian army is not better known than that of previous periods, but it takes the characteristics of the neo-Assyrian army which is well known . The kings of Babylon were in fact may be taken from the Assyrian troops after defeating the empire. The troops are based mainly on infantry armed with bows, spears and swords / knives, grouped in units ranked according to the principles already in place in the time of Hammurabi , led most recently by the king and his close umbrella body officers (lia Saar). Military service is a service (ilku) due to the king, which can be achieved through effective participation in the war or a contribution to equip the troops. The workforce of large organizations is mobilized for war, and equipped by the institution. Military tenures exist at this time, with the "land of arcs (qati bit), but their operation is well known that for the Achaemenid period (see below). Other Corps (chariots, cavalry, poliorcetics) escape us. War is a way for the Babylonian kings to get a tribute or booty, including rare products (metal, wood quality) or prisoners of war that are then donated to temples where they work as slaves. They also practice the deportation, on a smaller scale than the Assyrians , as they use only to establish new populations in Babylonia itself. The city of Babylon reached its apogee under the neo-Babylonian dynasty . For this period it is best known. Indeed, levels Babylonian are inaccessible because drowning in the water table and covered by the constructions of the first millennium and the mid-Babylonian levels are not better known . It seems that the general framework of the neo-Babylonian city is already in place in the twelfth century, if one relies on the text TINTER already mentioned . After his brutal destruction by Sennacherib , Babylon was rebuilt by the last kings Assyrian kings first and especially the neo-Babylonian Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar II. She then reaches an area of 975 hectares, unparalleled in the ancient Near East , and is probably one of the largest cities in the world, illustrating the power and prestige of the Empire it is the center. Only a small part of its surface has been cleared, especially around the main monuments, but it has been so remarkable during the excavations conducted by German Robert Koldewey early twentieth century . Babylon has a roughly rectangular shape (2.5 x 1.5 km), bisected by the Euphrates , which could be overcome by a bridge in a north-south. It is protected by thick walls pierced by eight gates, the most famous is the Ishtar Gate. In the Neo-Babylonian, it is coupled with an outer wall of triangular shape which extends along the left bank of the Euphrates, and is over 12 km long. It is unclear whether the protected space it was inhabited beyond the inner enclosure, which concentrates the most important monuments of the city. Several canals crisscrossed the city. Urbanism has no originality, no more than other cities of Babylonia, where residences of this period have been excavated ( Ur and Uruk ) : the streets are narrow, even though some major roads facilitate the movement between different parts of the city residential areas identified are densely built, consisting of residences of various sizes arranged around a central space, as well as a reception room in rich houses, and parts to various functions. As the capital of the kingdom, Babylon was home to several royal palaces. The "Palace south" and the "Palace North" were at the edge of the Euphrates , built in the northern wall of the inner enclosure. Only the plane of the first is well known: it is a large trapezoid 322 x 190 meters and more than 200 items, organized around a series of five courses arranged horizontally, the middle opening on the throne room. The plan's second palace, later, is unclear. A stronghold was built on the banks of the river to protect the building from flooding. North of the area protected by the outer wall was a third palace, dubbed "Summer Palace". As for the " Hanging Gardens of Babylon , "they could not be located during the excavations, and their origin is perhaps to be found in the capitals Assyrian rather than Babylonian . The capital of the empire is also a holy city, with many shrines dedicated to major deities of Mesopotamia. The local clergy is apparently managed to impose the view that this city was the center of the world where the god Marduk had created the Earth, as illustrated by a neo-Babylonian tablet on which is a world map such that it was then conceived . The great temple of Babylon is the Esagil , dedicated to the god Marduk and his entourage, including his consort Zarpanitu . Protected by an enclosure defining sacred space, it is particularly large (89.50 x 79.30 meters), but only the "holy of holies" and adjacent rooms were unearthed. In the north, another chamber surrounded Etemenanki , the ziggurat was associated with Esagil, square base of 91 meters square, which is probably the origin of the myth of the Tower of Babel. Its appearance and size are described in the Tablet of Esagil, probably written about the neo-Babylonian . This group of buildings was the culmination of the "Processional Way", the main street of the city that passed through the Ishtar Gate and served as a route to religious processions, especially at the big party- akitu which took place in New Year The cities of Lower Mesopotamia also enjoy the patronage of the neo-Babylonian kings, who restore their main monuments, above all the temples which as usual are the subject of the longest inscriptions of Babylonian kings foundation . Borsippa fact the subject of much attention on the part of Nebuchadnezzar II who restored its walls, temples and ziggurat. Work was performed in the Eanna of Uruk under the auspices of several Assyrian and Babylonian kings. Nabonidus , a fervent devotee of the moon god Sin , is undertaking major projects in its sanctuaries of Ur and Harran. All major cities have thus wealth of the kings of Babylon, even if it is the capital that benefits above all from their largesse, which contributes to the radiation that continues even after the kingdom as evidenced by the testimony of Herodotus. The Neo-Babylonian period saw the development of agriculture will continue at a rate probably higher than during the previous century, and takes place in a long cycle of growth of agricultural potentials of the region that continues during the second half the first millennium. Increasing the density of the Mesopotamian campaign is constant over this period . This stocking is partly initiated by the kings of the conquered peoples deported to Babylonia, where they install them in villages. This movement starts at the time of Assyrian domination, and is continuing under the Babylonian kings with the arrival of deportees from Syria and the Levant . Found in the documents of the Achaemenid period of towns named after the country of origin of its inhabitants: it is thus Ascalon , a Gaza a Kadesh , a Tyr , and also a "city of Judah" populated by Judeans deported the time of Nebuchadnezzar, which is echoed in the Bible. The latter is well known community through economic tablets mentioning the Achaemenid period of ethnic Judean recognizable by name, as their activities do not differ from other populations . Babylonian kings play another role in the agricultural boom in rehabilitating the network of canals, which had been left behind because of political unrest of the previous centuries, and had undergone several changes over the Euphrates . The irrigation system was managed by an administration related to the management of royal lands, which are integrated into the waterways, and the head of which is the maennu, steward of the royal domain. At local level it was managed by the gugallu which controls the channels, management of water distribution and wider cultivation of agricultural areas . Irrigated agriculture mainly concerns two major crops that dominate in Lower Mesopotamia: cereals, mainly barley, date palm (associated with vegetables) whose culture is expanding to the Neo-Babylonian period due substantial profits they can bring . The best lands are irrigated the most coveted, and are the subject of tensions between different potential owners. It is nevertheless essential to have the labor and operating equipment to exploit the land that does not seem to miss. Plots known by descriptions and plans are often rectangular in shape quadrangular, and tend to grow significantly, with one of their two short sides along an irrigation canal. This may be the result of a planning division of land, taking into account the competition for access to the channels need to offer a maximum of fields and palm gardens . The economic structures of the neo-Babylonian operate on a principle similar to that of previous periods, but significant changes are made in connection with political and economic developments of Babylonia during the period of Assyrian domination and the establishment of Babylonian empire whose economic benefits are high for some players close to the royal power. The areas of the crown probably occupied an important place, but they are not documented, as well as the higher category of elites of the kingdom, the "nobility" Babylonian with the highest offices and dignities, but remains poorly understood. The temple archives, however, are highly provided with two major lots: that of the Eanna of Uruk and that of Ebabbar of Sippar , two of the largest sanctuaries of Babylonia. The first had about 17 000 hectares of land, even if it appears that the entire area was not exploited and that we must take into account the biennial fallowing . Shrines still had their own administration for their economic activities, subject of last resort to royal power, which is their main provider and place some of its delegates to the Chief of the sanctuary, the Sangu atammu or . The operating areas of the temples could be done using several methods, either directly or indirectly . Regarding animal husbandry, herd management was conducted very rigorously, according to a hierarchical system specific . Animals were kept reserved for worship in the stables of the temple, while sheep were assigned to shepherds who graze could get them very far into the region of the average Tiger. The texts we also document the activities of private urban notable families that can be divided into two groups and at least two methods of enrichment major, always connected with the institutions . A first group consists of prebendaries large temples, which must above all their fortune to the possession of such loads of divine worship which can be issued a land grant, income and dignity as well as to build a solid social network , while being able to derive income from real estate. The second group is a peculiar phenomenon of neo-Babylonian period, which is seen in the growth of private archives document the activities that we often ambitious economic groups of families (broadly defined) real entrepreneurs . These notables are often referred from a common ancestor, such as descendants of "Smith" (Nappahu) to Babylon. In fact, we see that this group is not homogeneous by the activities it carries (exploitation of areas on behalf of institutions, establishment of landed estates, taking rent tax, trade, loans, etc..). What characterizes them most is the presence of family archives kept often for several generations, and the role of head of household who manages the affairs of the whole group. The most representative case for this period is the family of descendants of Egibi, located in Babylon , which had various activities: Trade of food around the capital, loans, equity to farm taxes, purchases of real estate urban and rural which are then leased purchase of slaves, etc.. The notable temples like employing a set of workers who have various legal conditions . The great divide is, as always, between the freemen, called Mar bench at that time, and slaves (male arduous amtu female). But other conditions of people that can qualify as "dependent" or "semi-free" existence . The best known are the "Oblates" (irku) temples, among which are the free and the unfree, who are persons data to a shrine by their families, with an obligation to work for the institution, usually as farm operator or craftsman cons of maintenance rations. This is a status of complete dependence vis--vis the institution, which has a legal nature, may be akin to serfdom. The slaves remained a work force possible, but really only important on areas of the temples and the crown, those of the latter (arad / amat Sarrut) with apparently a special status . The owners employed mostly in private homes, or their entrusted tasks sometimes more independent, such as running a farm, a craft workshop, or trade missions, in which case the slave was to pay them an annual pension mandattu called. The lower classes of Babylonian cities are a proletariat elusive, many people renting out their arms to work urban and rural . The basic unit of society is the monogamous nuclear family structure, economic and cultural critical dedicated to sustaining its own . At the time of union, arranged Future impacts of household heads who are free men (Tue bane), the bride's family pays as a dowry to previous periods (nudunnu) - discussed in advance and sometimes fixed by contract - the groom at the union, the dot-cons of the Old Babylonian period has disappeared from the literature of this period, even if one knows yet if the wife gets a present (biblu) from the married or his family. The husband may choose to divorce (muuru, literally "release") of his wife, usually on grounds of personal preference, and then he must pay cash, sometimes giving him her dowry . la mort du pre de famille, ses possessions sont partages entre ses fils, l'an prenant une part quivalant au double de celle de ses cadets, moins que les modalits de l'hritage n'aient t prcises par testament (ce qui est un cas peu courant) . Parfois les hritiers peuvent recevoir une part avant la mort du chef de famille. La dot constitue la part d'hritage des filles. Les couples striles pouvaient adopter des hritiers, mme si le contrat d'adoption sert aussi dissimuler des arrangements conomiques et financiers entre personnes , moins que le mari ne prenne une pouse secondaire pour enfanter. Le commerce la priode no-babylonienne est toujours domin par les grands organismes qui engagent des marchands ( ), pour vendre localement les surplus de leurs activits de production, avant tout des cultures ( grain , dattes ) et de l'levage ( laine ), et pour s'approvisionner en produits rares venant de loin . Ils financent des oprations de commerce longue distance (bien moins important en volume que le commerce local), pour se procurer des produits de valeur hors de Msopotamie ou en les faisant acheter sur les marchs de cette rgion o ils sont dj achemins par d'autres moyens. Ils recherchent avant tout des mtaux ( tain d' Iran , cuivre de Chypre , fer ), de l' alun d' gypte , des teintures du Levant , du vin de Syrie et de Haute Msopotamie . Les marchands semblent tre indpendants des institutions, et peuvent donc agir titre priv l'occasion, notamment au sein d'associations commerciales. La plus rpandue cette priode est le contrat ( pour une expdition commerciale ), qui voit une ou plusieurs personnes apporter un capital, qu'un mandataire doit faire fructifier, les profits tant rpartis proportionnellement l'apport initial . On trouve ce type d'association dans les archives prives de la priode, notamment pour la commercialisation de produits agricoles l'chelle locale. Les familles d'entrepreneurs comme les Egibi sont en effet impliques dans l'acheminement et la vente dans les villes des denres produites dans les campagnes alentours par des paysans qui n'ont pas les moyens de les vendre eux-mmes. Les contrats peuvent galement servir pour des oprations financires ou agricoles. La priode no-babylonienne voit l'affirmation dfinitive de Marduk /Bl en tant que divinit principale du panthon babylonien . Ce dieu est promu par l'idologie royale, qui favorise gnralement le rle prpondrant de son grand temple, l' Esagil , en dehors du cas particulier de Nabonide qui a une prdilection pour le dieu-lune Sn. Il ne faut d'ailleurs pas trop se focaliser sur les discours produits par les souverains et leur entourage, qui peuvent tre en dcalage avec la ralit des croyances populaires que l'on peut percevoir par exemple dans les noms de personnes, faisant souvent rfrence des divinits. On constat e and ancient Mesopotamian gods are very revered (though aspects may change), whether the triad Anu , Enlil and Ea , and the heavenly gods Sin , Shamash and Ishtar , or the storm god Adad , the god of medicine Gula or the god of wisdom, Nabu , whose popularity rose sharply during this period, almost threatening the rule of his father Marduk. Ishtar is at this time the principal female deity, have places of worship in several major cities ( Uruk , Akkad , Kish , Nippur ), and having absorbed the characteristics of most ancient Mesopotamian goddesses ( Ninlil , Ninhursag , etc..). The cult of Neo-Babylonian period incorporates the traditional aspects of Mesopotamian cult. It is performed in temples urban dominated by the large temples with the most land and offerings, vast religious complexes protected by an enclosure defining a sacred space organized around a main temple, a ziggurat and many outbuildings , the Yezidi of Borsippa temple of Nabu , the Ebabbar of Sippar , dedicated to Shamash , or the Ekur of Nippur , the temple of Enlil. This centralized organization of the worship of other temples of his city, which seems common in Babylonia at this time . The staff in charge of the worship of the deity is made up of people with access to the sacred space of the temple which culminated in the papahu, shrine housing the statue of the tutelary deity of the temple . In the Neo-Babylonian and are described as Eriba Biti. In a narrow sense, this includes the priests performing the service for worship god daily ritual specialists required in some cases (exorcists, diviners, lamentations, musicians), but broadly we include also some who make the meal prebendaries Divine (butchers, but apparently not as bakers and brewers) or those in charge of clothing, jewelry and furniture of the deity (goldsmiths, carpenters) . The most important members of staff presided over the meeting of the cult temple (kinitu), which could have administrative and judicial powers. But the actor's most important Babylonian cult remains as to the periods preceding the sovereign, who can enter the sanctuaries, finance and organize the restoration of the great temples, with offerings appealing, and participates in major rituals. Unlike the neo-Assyrian kings who celebrate especially the construction of great royal palaces, the inscriptions of kings founded the neo-Babylonian emphasize the religious buildings. At times, the staff was also mobilized for worship rituals individuals returning at regular intervals or not. The former are religious holidays, the most important to the Neo-Babylonian-Day akitu Capital, which took place during the New Year, dominated by the figure of the great god Marduk, that joined to celebrate the statues other major deities of Babylonia. King was the other main actor of this festival, during which he confessed his sins before being receive the insignia of kingship by the god, under the supervision of the clergy of the Esagil . It is therefore an essential ritual of the Neo-Babylonian royal ideology. Many other festivals filled the schedule of worship of the great cities of Babylonia. Scribes continue to be trained in the methods of previous periods, and the cuneiform script still seems to dominate the neo-Babylonian period despite the fact that the use of the Aramaic alphabet written on parchment develops, particularly in the administration on shelves where the scribes are associated with scribes on parchment (called epiru) . At the top level of the curriculum, the scholars are the "experts" (ummnu) of a discipline in which they acquired the secrets long after training, involving the control of the Akkadian but also from the Sumerian. They always have a religious function: it is therefore exorcists (aipu), diviners (Barua), lament (Kalu), along with astronomers / astrologers (Enuma Anu Enlil upar) . They usually work in the great sanctuaries of Babylonia in the capital or to Uruk , Nippur and Sippar. It is in these places that the Mesopotamian scholarly tradition survives, then it is no longer beyond the boundaries of the land of two rivers, the influence it had in the late second millennium. In a small room of the sanctuary of Shamash at Sippar , Iraqi archaeologists have unearthed a 1985 Library of the Neo-Babylonian period, including approximately 800 tablets (or a lot very modest compared to the thousands of tablets of the royal libraries of Assyria ) . Like other Mesopotamian libraries, the majority of tablets for religious rituals, hymns, prayers and lexical lists, alongside a few works that are "literary" (and the Atrahasis and the Epic of Creation ) and copies of old royal inscriptions. This is therefore the main types of scholarly literature documented for this period, often the result of an evolution of centuries of tradition that saw the establishment of series "canonical", so a unification and standardization of traditional of Mesopotamian literature . This concerns primarily the large series of word lists , including the largest, HA.RA = hubullu, composed of 24 tablets compiling different elements of reality (objects in wood, metal, clay, textiles, animals, stones, plants, names, etc..). There are also large series of divination as Enuma Anu Enlil, which contains the knowledge base birth or Bartu for hepatoscopy. It is used for technical texts Specialty priests of the temples, but also works combining encyclopedic knowledge to purpose. From this period, large canonical sets are increasingly the subject of comments and explanations, sometimes to seek the hidden meaning of words or signs found there: esoteric knowledge grows. For the purposes of worship, experts also had access to hymns, prayers, and texts describing specific religious ceremonies taking place in temples, with procedures, songs to sing. Besides that, myths ( Epic of Gilgamesh , Epic of Creation , Descent of Ishtar to the Underworld , etc..) texts and literature sapiential constitute only a small proportion of works that have survived, and no one knows not in exactly what context they could be used, except in the case of the Epic of Creation recited during the New Year festival of Babylon. The science is known by various shelves this period (medicine, astronomy / astrology, mathematics, etc.). . Neo-Babylonian artists continue to make steles carved in the continuity of previous periods. The cylinder seals of the period are very few registered, and their pictures show some influence thematic Assyrian : A recurring theme is the struggle of a hero, sometimes winged, who is about to hit an animal with a curved sword, but there are also scenes of purification of sacred tree, or rounds of lines representing real or mythological animals that can be carried to infinity. But the seals-seals are increasingly used during the first millennium, and eventually supplant the cylinder seals that disappear in the second half of the millennium. The art of pottery is widespread: many figures and reliefs are made using molds. The most common figures represent deities, demons, protectors as Pazuzu , but naked women, men carrying vases, riders, boats, beds, tables and other furniture . It may be votive objects offered to temples, or sacred objects kept in the homes feature for magical protection. Also known protective amulets in stone or metal. For architectural decorations, neo-Babylonian artisans improve the technique of colored glaze, they combine with the bricks molded in relief to give the sumptuous decorations adorning the colorful Ishtar Gate of Babylon and the two walls along the Way Processional (about 180 meters long) in this city, which passed the processions during major religious holidays . The decorations include friezes representing lions, animal-symbol of the goddess Ishtar , and floral motifs, which were attached on the Ishtar Gate dragons symbolizing Marduk and bulls symbolizing Adad. A similar decoration adorned the throne room of the Palais south. " After 539, Babylon is never the center of a kingdom, and the ancient history of the great Mesopotamian kingdoms ends. Babylon is only a province among others, even if its prosperity is an important issue. However, this political split is not accompanied by a disruption in the economic and social field in which change comes slowly. But the gradual disappearance of traditional institutions of Mesopotamian civilization leads to the disappearance of their culture, which is completed in the early centuries of our era. While Nabonidus was facing difficulties in his kingdom, another king, however, asserted: Cyrus II , king of Persia , and puts an end to the kingdom Medes in 550. Cyrus then continues a series of victories in Anatolia and defeated King Croesus of Lydia , thus becoming a threat to the Babylonians. Arrived on the shores of the Aegean Sea , the Persian king changes direction, and seized territory in Iran , Afghanistan , to the south of the Central Asia and the valley of the Indus. In ten short years, he has built an empire greater than all those who preceded . Despite the precautions of Nabonidus, who felt the wind change and reinforced its northern defense lines, the conflict which broke out in 539 was a case quickly settled. To make matters worse, Gobryas / Ugbaru, governor of the Babylonian Gutium (frontier province of Persia), rallied to the invaders. The Babylonian army was defeated at Opis , Sippar surrendered to the Persians who succeed then take Babylon without fighting long, perhaps a hand-led Gobryas. Balthasar is apparently killed in the clashes, while Nabonidus was probably exiled to an eastern province of the Persian Empire. In 539, Cyrus takes some time therefore of the whole Babylonian empire, and extended its rule over Mesopotamia and the Near East. That was the end of Babylonian independence, despite the fact that the new king was as new ruler of the country, taking the title of king of Babylon. He had indeed become the king of a vast area comprising many nations, in which Babylonia was in a place certainly important, but was no longer the center. The spirit of independence still present in the early Babylonian period Achaemenid , as evidenced by the rebellion that shook the region during the reign of Darius I . Here we see how a Nebuchadnezzar III in 522, supposedly the son of Nabonidus and Nebuchadnezzar IV the following year, in a context of disorders related to the succession of Cambyses , the son of Cyrus II. Both were defeated without difficulty by Darius I , and executed. Xerxes I , son of Darius, reorganized the administration of his empire, and bisects the province of Babylon before going to the Mediterranean and is separated from her former western possessions, to borrow the limitations of a set consisting of Babylonia and Assyria. Some rebellions take place the first time the new king's reign, but they are not serious. There is no evidence that the destruction of the Esagil Babylon occurred during repressions perpetrated by Xerxes as reported by Greek sources. Under the Persian domination, Babylonia enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity, remaining very little involvement in the Persian dynastic conflict despite the fact that the revolt of Cyrus the Younger to come to an end in 401. In 331, troops Macedonians of Alexander the Great, the Persian empire submit to Darius III and grabbed the Mesopotamia , after the victories of Issus and Gaugamela . Once completed campaigns in India in 324, Alexander, who presents himself as the successor of the Persian kings, returns to Babylon, with plans for this famous city and its region (restoration of monuments, canals), where he 's established prior to death in 323. So Babylon the Diadochi , Alexander's generals, decided the partition of the empire. Good agreement was short lived and they entered a long period of armed conflict that led to the division of the inheritance of the conqueror . It finally Seleucus I becomes master of Babylon in 311, founding the dynasty Seleucid and moving his capital at Seleucia on the Tigris , he founded towards 301. The Seleucid kingdom reached its peak under his son Antiochus I (280-261). Babylon is an important region for the prosperity of this state, even if its center of gravity gradually switch to Syria. It is also a period of Hellenization of several Mesopotamian cities. The wars between the Seleucids in Syria to Ptolemies , who dominate the Egyptian and the growing presence of Romans in the same region, and the defection of several eastern provinces of the kingdom and inheritance problems were gradually weaken the position Seleucid Babylonia in the middle of the second century BC. AD It is within this context that the kings Parthia of the dynasty of Arsacids manage to make themselves independent of Seleucid authority from their territory on the edges of the Caspian Sea . This aggravates the situation within the Seleucid kingdom, and Babylon fell into the hands of the Parthians in 141, when Demetrius II Nicator was defeated by Mithridates I.. The Seleucid king-cons attack, but was captured, allowing his brother Antiochus VII to take power. It follows a series of conflicts over a dozen years. At the center of the combat zone, ravaged by looters, Babylonia is a disaster area almost in a situation of anarchy, the power being exercised by small local officials. The viceroy Phraates II (130-129), Himros, organizes the enslavement and deportation of Babylonians sent Media. In the early first century, when King Mithridates II (123-88) restored the stability of the Parthian kingdom and made many conquests, he sees his kingdom was divided after the revolt Gotarzes I (91-80) who seized Babylonia. The Parthian kingdom then sinks into a period of great instability, while the Romans who supplanted the Seleucids in Syria have their sights on northern Mesopotamia. The first century AD. AD inheritance disorders worsen allowing local authorities to take greater autonomy. Babylonia is rocked by a series of conflicts, great institutional instability, and usually the central government exercises control weaker than previous periods, which not necessarily impede its prosperity. It's in the second half of the century, while the power is strengthened by Parthian Vologeses ist , Babylon became a city-phantom, deserted by its inhabitants, while the ancient culture of which she was the symbol fades. During the early period of the Achaemenid Persian rulers often revert to their titular title of "king of Babylon", before you forget to be content with the title "King of the country" . The province of Babylon, which roughly corresponds to the Mesopotamia , is headed by a governor taking over the Babylonian title traditionally given to the holder of a charge of provincial administration, or Bel Pahat Pahat, not satrap , which means a charge in Babylonia lower. They are Persians who hold the highest offices of government, dealing with military matters, taxes and justice. During the Seleucid period, the province of Babylon is governed by a satrap (muma'iru), but it coexists with entities with other statutes, such as cities ( Greek Polis ), which rank high Babylon . Locally, the administrations of temples and the assemblies of notables and elders continue to have judicial powers . The fact that Babylonia is reduced to provincial status and is no longer the center of a powerful kingdom does not prevent it being a province crucial for states that dominate because of its wealth. Throughout the second half of the first millennium, it continues its demographic and economic development , which rises to the Parthian period, despite the political turmoil that occur and which contrast with periods of peace lasting domination of Achaemenid and also that of the Seleucid, which contributed greatly to this prosperity. The kings, though foreign to Babylonia, are active. The Persians and the continuing development and expansion of the network of canals undertaken by their predecessors, neo-Babylonian, to expand the area under cultivation . The development of Babylonia has a certain interest for the empires that dominate it, which seek to derive significant revenues. Some reorganization of land is effected by the Persians in this purpose . Areas are allocated to members of the royal family or senior dignitaries, taken on the old Babylonian royal domain. In the fifth century sets up a new system of land management, based around named hatru constituencies, including a resident population, and designated by the occupation, ethnic origin or nature of military appurtenances located. This is also a form of reorganization of the Babylonian royal lands and addicts working for the palace to the Neo-Babylonian period. The King's domain, the largest, was operated by addicts gardu called and paid by the maintenance rations . The archives of Nippur inform us about the functioning of military lands, which takes the form of hatru headed by a director who aknu, aka Babylonian taken . Military lands are divided by type of unit that the holder was designed to help equip: smaller areas were the "areas of arc" (bit qati) for an archer, and then there were "areas of horse" ( bit ISIS) and 'areas of chariot "(bit narkabti). The question is whether this "service" (ilku) consisted solely of a payment of money for the army or if he also included an actual military service. It is in any case still in the presence of a system that matches services to land that could be used to equip troops at the time of the Babylonian kingdom. Rich region of the empire, Babylonia thus provided important contributions to the Persian power, from their land directly but also indirectly through taxes, particularly on heavy land or certain transactions, as well as by forced levies agricultural chores or . During Seleucid rule, part of the rural area should have the status of royal land (in Greek chora), which could be formed including areas allocated to members of the royal family and dignitaries . Operation of taxation for this period is poorly known. The traditional temples of Babylonia continue to operate under the domination of Persian and Greek. For the first time, our information is limited and problematic: the archives of the great temples of Sippar and Uruk described for the neo-Babylonian cease during the last years of the reign of Darius I and the beginning of the reign of Xerxes I , in along with other private funds from individuals linked to the temples by holding sinecures, especially in cities of northern Babylonia ( Borsippa example). But other private lots remain, notably in Uruk. This could be the consequence of the suppression of a revolt, and refers to several Greek authors mention the destruction of the great temple of Babylon by Xerxes I , the reality remains debated . But this phenomenon for archival purposes remains poorly understood and may be linked to other phenomena and does not affect the environment of the temples, of which remain continue to operate . The estates of the temples seem to have been reduced due to the reorganization of the land regime in the Achaemenid period, though still strong . It appears in any case that the first Seleucid kings, notably Antiochus I , must work to rehabilitate several shrines, including the Esagil of Babylon . The organization of the temples is similar to the previous period . The important role of the authorities of the largest in the administration of cities continues. It is the same as the concentration of management of the temples of the same city or region and to Uruk the great traditional temple, the Eanna , is supplanted by the Seleucid period a new temple, the Bit Resh, dedicated to Anu and his consort Antu, who manages the other temples in the city and also that of Larsa. The mixture of administrative and cultic and strong interlocking between the families of notables and sanctuaries, still apply. An exorcist may well have a management task, and his family may also receive maintenance rations from the temple. The system of sinecures still exist for the purposes of worship. These practices are documented in the Seleucid period and until the beginning of the Parthian period, with lots from two cities, Babylon and Uruk , and documenting several notable families . The best-known of these families is notable descendants of Murashu established at Nippur , which in turn are linked to the Achaemenid Persian administration . They made fortunes not by acquisitions of real estate but by the hiring of military areas they highlight important because of their operating capital (tools, animals, dependent workers), complemented by business support the collection of taxes and loans. The silver (metal) remains the basic means of payment, and money is divided between good and average quality, marked by an official state seal. It is always weighed during this period, never counted, and when the first coins were introduced in Seleucid Babylonia they are given only a weight value . The economy of the first millennium Babylonian is often presented as being more and more of the issues identified as "modern" with the fact that more and more local exchanges take place with the mediation of money-money So according to market mechanisms , implying a decline in processes of redistribution in kind (such as salaries paid in maintenance rations), although they have remained largely in the form of compensation majority . This development could be the result of the growing importance of 'private' sector, and employment of hired labor used episodically and paid in local currency by the institutions. Prices and their fluctuations are well documented for the second half of the first millennium, through acts of practice (contracts), and especially reports of astronomical mentioning alongside the movements of celestial bodies monthly changes in prices of products Current consumption : grains of barley , of sesame from mustard (or dodder ?) and watercress (or cardamom ?), dates , and wool. They are spread over four centuries periods Achaemenid , Seleucid and Parthian (460-61). These documents specify how much of these products could be purchased for 1 shekel of silver. They pose different problems of analysis and their interpretation is subject to debate still open. First and foremost, the fact that prices are actual prices on the markets of Babylon has been challenged . The nature of price movements and their interpretations are the subject of most of these debates because they raise interesting questions about the nature of the economy of ancient Babylonia. Price changes seasonally are indisputable, the short term , and crises caused by droughts , floods , possible epidemics or conflicts, mechanisms common in preindustrial societies. If the interplay of supply and demand seems undeniable at least at a spatially and temporally limited, it remains to determine how far he can play, and then if the economy follows the mechanisms of market (vision "modernist "), or whether it is instead in the presence of a subsistence economy where prices vary little . Variations on the long term are also visible, but their trends and their explanations are particularly well established. Basically, the prices of basic commodities seem high to the Achaemenid period, before falling to the Seleucid period and then increased again during the troubled times of the Parthian period. These developments are clearly determined by demographic changes (an increase of the population), productive (extension of irrigated agriculture) and the sets of players (the royal power, the temples and the private sector, but also the "proletariat" ), but the sources are not sufficient for experts to agree on their nature . The presence of administration in temples and people working there loads, including prebendaries, producing texts written in cuneiform, tells us that the Babylonian temples continue to operate under the principles established in the centuries 'classical' civilization Mesopotamian. This concerns at least two great temples that we have delivered ritual tablets for the Hellenistic period: the Esagil of Babylon and Resh Bit of Uruk . ct de l'entretien quotidien du dieu qui se droule toujours dans ces sanctuaires, on trouve des mentions de plusieurs grandes ftes qui rythment l'anne liturgique dans ces endroits : la fte- est toujours un vnement majeur, aux cts de rituels non priodiques comme une fte se droulant lors d'une clipse de lune. Tout cela suppose la rdaction et la transmission de ces rituels selon les traditions anciennes qui sont conserves dans ces lieux. Des changements dans le panthon peuvent se produire comme la perte de prminence d' Ishtar au profit d' Anu Uruk , peut-tre suite au retrait de l'emprise et de l'influence babylonienne sur cette ville . l'poque sleucide y est construit le Bt Resh ddi au nouveau grand dieu du panthon local, le dernier grand complexe sacr bti en Basse Msopotamie suivant la tradition babylonienne . Sources periods of cuneiform Babylonian kingdom and especially those following his fall, coupled with those from the Assyrians of the seventh century that has drawn his knowledge in many centers southern intellectuals, provide various information on the state of knowledge scientists of the last heirs of the literate Mesopotamian tradition, so the final state of Babylonian science . Magical-medical texts can be divided between the texts of diagnostic and therapeutic procedures with those, including pharmaceutical drugs, incantations and rituals. In the field of mathematics, it seems to have been few developments since the Old Babylonian period, except the use of zero positional (zero as a digit). However, applications of this knowledge have evolved, including their use in astronomy / astrology . The main area in which the Babylonian scholars are renowned among their neighbors is indeed that of the astronomy / astrology , more developed in this region than elsewhere in the ancient world, and is the only area in which knowledge is truly Babylonian innovative in that period . Routine observations and precise movements of the stars on a very long time (at least 661 to 61) were compiled from a series of reports astronomical tablets . These data, combined with the mathematical knowledge inherited from previous periods, allowed some scientists to predict fairly accurately the lunar eclipses and solar , or calculate precisely the length of the lunar years and solar as well as correspondence between the two. It was also during this period that completed the development of the zodiac Babylonian, from which comes one who is still in use today . Astrology / Astronomy is ultimately the aspect of culture and science Babylonian has the highest circulation out of Mesopotamia, often reduced to the aspect of divination, some experts "Chaldean" is renowned among the Greeks or the Romans, as Kidinnu / Kiden . The last period of the Babylonian culture is marked in the field of architecture and artistic elements of continuity but also significant changes especially due to the influence of Hellenistic civilization dominating during the Seleucid and Parthian , after a period Achaemenid rather conservative in this area . In the architectural field, if the residents follow the models of previous centuries, the monumental architecture knows some Greek-inspired changes, with for example the construction of a theater in Babylon , a peristyle courtyard in the palace of summer of that city. But the Babylonian tradition is still present, as evidenced by the new religious complex of Uruk. The only place where the impact of the Greek architectural tradition is strong is Seleucia on the Tigris (Tell 'Umar), capital and new colony founded by Seleucus I. Nicator , a vast city of hippodamian plan . In the Parthian period, the last temple built Uruk , which follows an inscription found on the site was dedicated to a deity named Gareus which we know nothing more, has some features inspired by the Greco-Roman architecture (including Half exterior columns). The Iranian architectural influence is reflected in turn in the construction of iwans at Nippur . Ctesiphon , located across from Seleucia on the Tigris, became a Parthian capital from the late second century. In the visual arts, Hellenistic influence is very strong in the terracotta sculpture of Babylon, where arise from representations of Greek gods . Babylonian and Persian patterns are also demonstrated, although an influence of Greek style is noticeable. The statues of alabaster from this period are representative of this phenomenon, including those representing the goddesses nude standing or lying. They show an adaptation of ancient Mesopotamian traditions, including materials (alabaster, but also gold, precious stones such as rubies) in the new cultural context illustrated by the fact that the Greek style was modeled . In the area of the etrog, the cylinder seal was finally abandoned in the second half of the first millennium, and supplanted by the seal-stamp whose repertoire is again marked by Greek themes. The finds of this period, mainly from sites marked by Greek influence (especially Babylon), it is impossible to know how far this reflects the reality of cultural changes affecting all Babylonia. The latest cuneiform document that is known is an astrological tablet dated from 61 AD. AD, therefore the Parthian period, found in the Esagil of Babylon . Although this is probably not the last document to have been written in cuneiform , everything suggests that this writing and culture several thousand years it served to note disappeared in the middle of the temples, which is the latter in the Mesopotamian culture which survived. The great temple of Marduk had to stop working by the end of the Parthian period, although there are still traces of priests and worship of deities the ancient Babylonian period to the beginning of the Sassanid , or the Third to fourth century AD. It is plausible that the "last corner" was written on a shelf later in the third century . At this time, the ancient Mesopotamian culture should no longer have social roots, while the Akkadian had ceased to be a vernacular for a long time (probably in the Achaemenid Period) . The new empire was the official religion of Zoroastrianism , profoundly different from the old Babylonian religion just like Christianity which developed in different streams in the region, while writing alphabet Aramaic or Greek had long since taken over the cuneiform . Family
The economic structures: large organizations and private sector
Campaigns of Lower Mesopotamia
Landscapes and rural development
Agricultural Production
The world of cities: urban planning and activities
The urban
The urban residences
Merchants and Artisans
Culture and religion
Religious beliefs and deities
Worship
ss = "mw-headline" id = "Le_milieu_lettr.C3.A9_: _.C3.A9ducation_et_productions_litt.C3.A9raires"> The literate environment: education and literary productions
Scientific productions
The artistic achievements of Babylon Amorite
The end of the First Dynasty of Babylon
Dynasty Kassite: stabilization and prestige of the Babylonian kingdom
The advent of the dynasty in Babylonia Kassite
Kings Kassite internationally
The Kassites in diplomatic relations
The wars against Assyria and Elam
Institutions of the kingdom Kassite
King
The elites and the royal administration
The royal donations
The economic situation
The evolution of campaigns
Craft and trade
The assertion of Babylon in the religious and cultural
Le panthon et les lieux de culte
Letters to the period Kassite
The architectural and artistic
The influence of Babylonian culture
The fall of the kingdom Kassite
Clearing the power of Babylon
The weakening of the Babylonian kingdom
The Second Dynasty of Isin: a rapid recovery but not durable
The chaos of the late eleventh and tenth century
An incomplete recovery
The revival against Babylonian Assyrian expansion
The assertion confederations Chaldean
Assyria puts his hand on Babylonia
A demographic and economic recovery
The Babylon against Assyrian domination
The early Babylonian actors resistance
Destruction and reconstruction: the complex relationship between the kings of Babylonia and Assyria
The destruction of the Assyrian empire
The neo-Babylonian empire: the brief heyday of Babylon
A powerful empire that fails to stabilize
The conquests of Nebuchadnezzar II
The successors disputed
The organization of the Babylonian empire
The capital city reflects the power of the empire
The economic and social
The expansion of irrigated agriculture
Economic structures: temples, elders and dependent
Family Structures
Le commerce : circuits et acteurs
Religion et culture
Les divinits
The cult: places, actors, moments
The medium scholar of Babylon
Artistic achievements
The Babylon after the Babylonian kingdom
The Babylon under foreign domination
The end of the Babylonian empire
The period of Achaemenid domination
The Hellenistic period
The instability of the Parthian
The adaptation of economic and social structures
A rich province
In Service of Empire: royal estates, land and taxation service
Temples and urban notables
Exchange, currency and price changes
The slow decline of Babylonian culture
The religious cult in Babylonia in the second half of the first millennium
. Among them is a family of lamentations that says get out of Sin-leqe-uninni, scholar of the period Kassite who is assigned the writing of the canonical version of the Epic of Gilgamesh . An attempt to convey the Babylonian tradition to the Greeks was attempted by Berosus , priest of Babylon , who writes the Babyloniaka to 281, with myths and ancient history of Mesopotamia, which reached us only indirectly and perhaps little circulation in antiquity as arousing little interest among the intended recipients. In the Parthian period, scholars adapt Babylonian lexical lists to Hellenization, by developing texts called "Greco-Babylonian, which carry a lexical or scholarly text in cuneiform , and its transcript (and not its translation ) in characters Greek alphabetic order to facilitate understanding in a world where users are becoming scarce cuneiform to the triumph of Aramaic and Greek alphabets . Science in the first millennium Babylonian
Architecture and art under the influence
The end of the Mesopotamian culture
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