Ancient Israel
The people in ancient Israel means Jews who established kingdoms in the Iron Age in the Ancient Near East. The history of ancient Israel covers the period from -2000 to -440, in Palestine and the Middle East , which corresponds to the stories of books called "historical" in the Hebrew Bible , ranging from the mythical origin of the Israelites with Abraham and installation in the land of Canaan , then the emergence of the Israelite exile in Babylon. In the Bible, these people are called the Children of Israel.
The early kingdoms of Israel and Judah appeared along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea , between the ancient empires of Egypt to the south, Assyrian , Babylonian and Persian in the East, ancient Greece and the Roman Empire to west.
Judah and Israel emerged from the Canaanite culture at the end of Late Bronze and develop from highlands between the coastal plain and the valley of Jordan. Israel and Judah become important and prosperous kingdoms, vassals of the great empires of the region, before being destroyed in turn. The returning exiles from Babylon then develop a Jewish identity in the Persian province of Yehud , new name of Judah. This province is in turn absorbed by the Hellenistic kingdoms Ptolemaic and Seleucid the fourth century BC. BC , to a brief period of independence to the Second and first century BC. AD under the leadership of sovereigns Hasmonean. The Hasmonean kingdom was finally incorporated into the Roman Empire.
According Yohanan Aharoni Data from the Bible
History of the Israelites in the Bible
The Hebrew Bible (or Old Testament by Christians) contains a number of stories or legends about the history of the Israelites. These stories are in the books of the Torah (or Pentateuch ) for the period from the installation of Abraham in Canaan (about -2100 indications of the text to recreate a traditional chronology approximate) the exodus of Egypt under Moses (c. -1300). The Torah is traditionally attributed to Moses himself.
Follow what are sometimes placed among the historical books (the Book of Joshua, the Book of Judges, the books of Samuel, the two books of Kings, two books of Chronicles, Ezra's book ...). It is the conquest of Canaan under Joshua, the creation of a large and prosperous kingdom united under David and Solomon, the separation into two kingdoms of Israel and Judah, the conquest and destruction of the First Temple and exile to Babylon and the return from exile.
Dates of writing the Bible
For specialists in textual criticism , such as biblical Julius Wellhausen , documents about "J" and "E" and John Van Seters and Thomas Thomson, the story of the Patriarchs was written late in the monarchic period (-1000 to -700) or later (-600 to -500). This would explain the presence of many anachronisms in the story, most notably the camels and the Philistines.
The Genesis mentions repeatedly the camels at the time of the Patriarchs, then it is well established that the camel was not domesticated until the late second millennium and was not used as a beast of burden until well after -1000 . The caravan of camels Joseph carries the tragacanth gum , balm and laudanum , goods actually characteristics of Arab trade, but to -700, -600 (see below Between war and survival). As for the Philistines , it is firmly established, Ayelet Gilboa, they come only from Canaan -1200 . In addition, the city of Gerar , presented as their capital in the story of Isaac, is a tiny village in Iron I , which becomes stronger as a city to -700 under the Assyrians. The biblical scholar Martin North noted that the activities of Jacob are geographically linked, mainly in the northern part of Canaan , those of Isaac to the south, those of Abraham in Hebron between the two
The conclusion is that the text "J" and the text "D" on the Patriarchs were both composed in Jerusalem about 700 BC, at a time when the northern kingdom, Israel , was no more, and when Judah was dreaming of formulate a pious prehistory of Israel in which Judah plays the central role.
Methodology and History of Archaeology of the biblical period
From 1900, the first archaeologists like William F. Albright , taking the historical narratives of the Bible literally looked at each discovery an illustration of the biblical text has been called this approach the Biblical Archaeology. It was not until 1970 that the scientific methods of archeology , social science, have gradually imposed. If no archaeologist denies that many legends, characters and pieces of Bible stories very far back in time, it remains that the wording of the Bible was made in the political, social and spiritual a fully formed state, with widespread literacy, at the height of the Kingdom of Judah in the Iron Age recently. Finkelstein , for example, proposed date the writing of the time of King Josiah.
In the spirit of Biblical Archaeology , William F. Albright in 1930 and Yigal Yadin discovered around 1950 on the ground the evidence, compelling in their view, the biblical narrative that guided their research, in the brutal destruction of Bethel , Lachish and Hazor particular, they attributed destruction in the general euphoria , the conquests of Joshua .
However, trouble arose with the excavation of Jericho , a modest village with no trace of occupation in the thirteenth century , uninhabited since the XIV century , with no walls and no traces of violent destruction. The excavations of Ai , conducted from 1933 to 1935 by Judith Marquet-Krause according to scientific methods of the French School, then confirmed by 1960, led to the same result: the city, imposing the Middle Bronze, Late Bronze was uninhabited. It was the same with Gibeon , kefir, Brot, Kiryat Jearim , Arad and Heshbon. As for the destruction of Bethel, Lachish and Hazor, indices suggested finally that their destroyers were not necessarily the Israelites .
Guided by reading the Bible , archaeologists from the Biblical Archaeology awarded each Philistine pottery pieces to the valiant exploits of David. Thus, Benjamin Mazar , finding Qasile As a Philistine city ignored by the Bible but with traces of destruction by fire, add it without hesitation, but without any evidence, to the list of Philistine cities razed by David . Large buildings have been found in Megiddo between 1920 and 1930 were immediately attributed to Solomon , among other stables, Solomon necessarily because the Bible spoke of the stables of Solomon . Yigal Yadin excavated at Hazor in a monumental gateway called triple pincer the same type as that found at Megiddo 20 years earlier, and found that drawings of excavations Gezer also contained the same type of doors. Yadin claimed therefore that an architect of Solomon in Jerusalem was the author of this plan, duplicated in the provincial towns . Digging at Megiddo in the east of the door, he discovered in the stables of Solomon an extraordinary stone palace, which was, too, attributed to Solomon , and a second palace of the same type found shortly before. The team, obviously later, can no longer be attributed to Solomon , Yadin was attributed to Ahab king of Israel .
History of Ancient Israel
Origin of the Israelites in the Bible and Historical Perspective
The Patriarchs
William F. Albright took the Bible literally, in the early twentieth century century and claimed at the time: "across, depicts what Genesis is historical and there is no reason to doubt the overall accuracy Biographical details of his " .
A calculation based on the Bible leads to -2100 to locate the departure of Abraham , a native of Ur in Mesopotamia south to Canaan , where he led a pastoral life, grazing their flocks in Shechem sites , Bethel, Beersheba and Hebron. Albright is a merchant Abraham Amorite came from the north, in Canaan , when migrating Amorite. Albright suppose this sudden and massive migration, urbanization destroying Canaanite which characterizes the period from Bronze Age . However, it is now established that in the period from Bronze through (-2100 to -1800), the collapse of urban Canaanite was not abrupt but gradual, the majority of the population does not become nomadic but still settled in permanent villages. In addition, sites of Shechem , Beersheba and Hebron do not contain any dating from Bronze through.
Given these contradictions, further attempts put the Patriarchs later, the Middle Bronze Age , but then it becomes incomprehensible that the Bible does not mention the powerful city-states that have become Hazor and Megiddo , with their palaces and temples, nor fortified cities of Bethel , Jerusalem and Shechem (the latter is mentioned as a site, but not as strong city).
The site of Beersheba is also unoccupied for the duration of the Bronze Age. Abraham is frequently linked with Beer Sheva , the stories about him necessarily date to the Iron Age.
Exodus
If the patriarchs are not historical figures, one wonders if the Exodus as described in the Bible is a historical event.
Throughout ancient times, people leave Canaan to settle in the Nile Delta . As in the biblical narrative, climatic hazards periodically cause famine in Canaan when compared, Egypt is a country rich (due to the fertile Nile) and organized ( grain storage ). Some hire themselves as laborers, others are traders, some become VIPs (soldiers, priests), some are prisoners of war (not free ).
From -1670 to -1570, the Hyksos ("foreign kings" ), from Palestine, took control of northern Egypt, founding a dynasty of pharaohs. They were finally expelled in Canaan where they rgugient including Sharouhen. Several similarities were noted between the adventure of the Hyksos and the Hebrews of the biblical story of Exodus (population came from Canaan, which becomes very powerful in Egypt, where she successfully opposed to soldiers Pharaoh and eventually returned to Canaan). But it is not possible to see the Jews in the population of the Hyksos and not one hint that might relate to Jews or Israel appears in numerous documents concerning the Hyksos, as in Egypt in Canaan .
There is no reference to epigraphic Hebrews or Israel in the Amarna Letters ( XIV century ), yet extremely detailed populations present in Canaan. The first mention of Israel is in the Merneptah stele ( XIV century ), designating a group of people in Canaan , and it is the only mention of Israel or the Hebrews in Egyptian literature all types confused literature .
The stele of Merneptah, the reference in the Bible of the city of Ramses, the reference in Ex 14.2 Migdol name (the New Kingdom forts guarding the route between Egypt and Canaan ) and several other indications lead to special attention at the time of Ramses II.
Gold "no trace camping, no signs of occupation dating from Ramses II or his predecessors or his immediate successors, have been found nowhere in the Sinai . And not for lack of having sought ... It is not the slightest evidence of such activity at the time attributed to the Exodus, is to tell the thirteenth century BC. AD ... On the long list of camps in the desert, and Kadesh-Barnea yon-Geber are the only ones that can be identified with certainty. We find no trace of the Israelites on. "
The Negev is also unoccupied at the Late Bronze. So there is no king of Arad to obstruct Israel.
According to Donald B. Redford , details the most evocative of the Exodus are connected in the seventh century ( Pithom , for example, identified Per-Atum, was built by Necho II to -600), suggesting that the story was written at this time. To -700 and -600, Kadesh Barnea, was inhabited and had a fortress, and Etzion-Geber (between Eilat and Aqaba ) was a flourishing port . At that time, finally, the kingdom of Judah saw Egypt with a mixture of respect, fear and aversion , as a potential ally in case of Assyrian invasion from the north, a rival in its sights on Israel. It is fighting Necho II that Josiah was killed.
The conquest of Canaan
The biblical story of the conquest of Canaan is also contradicted by archeology. It can only be after the time of the Amarna Letters , which ignore Israel, and before the Merneptah stele that quote. But the Egyptian presence in Canaan, with strongholds such as Beth Shean example, full of hieroglyphics Seti I (-1294, -1279), Ramses II (-1279, -1213) and Ramses III (-1184, - 1153), makes it unlikely a military conquest in the presence of garrisons that monitor the country but are absent from the narrative . If this conquest had taken place, the Egyptian military would surely be noticed. But the abundant Egyptian records do not mention anywhere.
After an impasse of Biblical Archaeology , the archaeological research , this time conducted across the Mediterranean, began scientists agree: the invasions of the Sea Peoples signed across the region and for a century, the collapse of World Bronze Age and the transition to the Iron Age .
Long before these archaeological discoveries, biblical scholars of the German school, Albrecht Alt and Martin North, were spotted in the frame of the book of Joshua, a montage in the tradition etiology , inspired by local legends .
Moreover, various theories have been proposed to try to reconcile a historical interpretation of biblical narrative with the absence of military conquest found in the field (theory of peaceful infiltration theory, the peasant revolt). These assumptions led to relativize the biblical narrative and to prepare the archaeological synthesis available today.
In his theory of peaceful infiltration, Albrecht Alt likens the Israelites Bedouin Shasou .
In the theory of the peasant revolt, the biblical scholar George Mendelhal assigns apiru , without a shred of evidence, the worship of YHWH , which is supposed to provide a common ideology that unifies them and allows them to raise the peasants in a revolt against the established social order. According to this theory, taken by sociologist Norman Gottwald , the Israelite conquest is achieved when a large number of Canaanite peasants overthrew their masters and lords of the cities to become the community of Israel. Archaeologist William G. Dever took over the theory of peasant revolt in assigning the occupation of the highlands to two innovations: the ability to dig cisterns in the rock and the ability to coat. Unfortunately, these two technologies were already known and used long before the emergence of primitive Israel. Moreover, it is established that the first Jewish facilities in the highlands, from -1200, are the result of nomads who settle and not rebellious peasants who come together. Finally, items of pottery made by William G. Dever to support his argument does not come from the first installations, as he thought, but sites corresponding to the second phase of occupation of the highlands : this pottery indicate nothing about the startup process. These new data clearly contradict the theory of peasant revolt, whose success with an audience is also the ideology it conveys: that of a world shaken by the spread of this new faith .
The trace of the ideology of Deuteronomy , very present in the book of Joshua , would indicate the time of King Josiah as that of writing narrative .
Iron Age I: emergence of the Israelites
Local excavations in the Canaanite cities, showed no sign of the early Israelites. A regional survey of the entire surface of the highlands of the current West Bank is undertaking timidly from 1967 and large scale around 1990. This statistical technique, which consists in systematically collecting the smallest traces of life, the date and map all the tracks by date, will help locate the habitat of the early Israelites. Approximately 250 communities are located on the hills, home to most adults and about fifty more children, a few hundred individuals for the most important, about 45,000 people in total to -1000, the very first installations starting shortly before -1200. The habitat plan is oval, around a large courtyard surrounded by rooms rectangular stones. The detailed study of one of these big sites Iron I , Izbet Sartah (near Rosh HaAyin ), in a fertile area, was made by Baruch Rosen, a specialist in agriculture and nutrition in ancient. The archaeological material found indicates a hundred inhabitants, 350 acres of land, half cultivated and the rest in pasture, an annual maximum of 53 tonnes of wheat and 21 tons of barley, forty oxen and a herd of 300 goats and sheep .
They are nomadic pastoralists who settle gradually from the peripheral regions less accessible, first close to the desert for most, and then further west. Before the Iron Age, two waves of settlements have been identified , the first in the Bronze Age , then a second Middle Bronze whenever discontinued and followed by a return to a semi-nomadic. At the Iron Age I , a third wave of implementation is one that sees the first Israelites (250 sites), reinforced the Iron II (500 sites). It is in this third wave, unlike the previous two, the pork bones are absent from food waste: early Israelites did not eat pork. This custom of their own because at the same time, the Philistines are an abundant consumption of pork . The Israelites would not be a foreign population in Canaan, but the result of an internal transformation of Canaanite society.
The archaeologist Amihai Mazar , Hebrew University of Jerusalem, found in one of these villages in the north a small bronze bull figurine probably a Canaanite worship of Baal. These villages are not fortified, no war no concern is raised, the inhabitants live a peaceful pastoral life. Reality shows such as archeology is far removed from the accounts of the Book of Judges , with its conflict of Israel against the Philistines , the Moabites , the Mdianites and the Amorites. The biblical narratives relate these to the Deuteronomistic history , suggesting the reign of King Josiah as time of writing .
Kingdoms of David and Solomon Main article: Archaeological Data on David and Solomon. Neither David nor Solomon is mentioned in any Egyptian or Mesopotamian text and did not discover the slightest vestige of the buildings of Solomon to Jerusalem.
The Tel Dan stele , written in Aramaic, refers to the house of David. It proves that he has existed a dynasty claiming to be King David , and two kingdoms, that of Israel in the north and the south house of David :
"I killed . This listing also demonstrates that at the time of registration, the kingdom of Israel ("the house of Omri" Assyrian archives) is different from the realm of "the house of David."
However, as the conquest of Canaan , the allocation of large buildings at Megiddo to Solomon is questioned as the tests are finer and more precise dating. It appears that the Philistine pottery continued to be made well after the death of David , so that the use of debris as their dating technique has led to errors (estimate too old for certain dates). Progressive dating carbon-14 allows for little to obtain reliable and accurate assessments , which show in particular that the palaces of Megiddo were built several decades after the death of Solomon and the famous stables still much later .
But the main doubt about the extent of the kingdom of David and that of Solomon comes from the study of the southern part, which includes Jerusalem , the capital. The strong geographic disparity between the northern highlands, well watered and fertile, and the south, very dry and arid, is found in the demographics. About 45,000 Israelites for all Highlands -1000, 90% are in the north, in 5000 only the southern part . The habitat in the southern part is very sparse. As shown by the work of David Ussishkin , the Jerusalem of Solomon , like David , is not a great city: it is a typical village in the highlands. David and Solomon were not ruled empire and it is logical that they have left no trace of their existence, nor in the Egyptian documents, or documents in Mesopotamia.
Only in the seventh century BC. BC that Jerusalem is becoming a great city, maintaining a luxury trade with distant countries, a literate city. The united monarchy, as described in the Bible does not represent the reality of the tenth century BC. AD : Biblical Jerusalem is the capital symbolizes the ideal kingdom of Judah and the united monarchy is a political project, perhaps that of King Josiah .
The beginnings of the kingdom of Israel (tenth century BC.)
Until 1980, the vision of a unified kingdom, strongly centralized, with large buildings Solomon , vision recovery in Bible , was widely accepted by archaeologists and historians. In this sense, the break between Israel and Judah gave rise to two States, twins was thought, assumed them as fully organized administratively, legally and militarily.
Only after the first surveys of bottom habitats in the highlands was found that the contrast between the northern and southern zone, which resulted from climatic contrasts, from the first wave of settlements at the age of Bronze Age , contrast sharply marked economic potential. The pattern of settlement in the north, around Shechem , then dense, with a sedentary farming. That of the south around Jerusalem , is poor and no permanent structures . We find the contrast in the second wave, the Middle Bronze Age , being the main center Shechem and Jerusalem being so strongly fortified. In Late Bronze , the Amarna Letters show in detail the rivalry between Shechem (where there Labayou) and Jerusalem (where there Abdi-Heba), valleys and coastal plain are organized into city-states reduced but highly populated areas . At the time of David and Solomon , archeology shows Judah still economically marginal, while Israel prospered, developing the specialized cultivation of olives and grapes, the technique of manufacture of oil and wine and market economy with trade and transport . To -900, Israel is already the seeds of a fully formed, with administrative centers and fortified palaces in stone at Megiddo, Jezreel and Samaria. Jerusalem , by contrast, is really a little urbanized before 700 BC, the industrialization of production does not begin until after that date.
Judah and Israel have in common the worship of YHWH, but also other gods, their dialects are close and Hebrew, from -800, they will use the same alphabet.
On the lowlands, the Philistines consolidated their presence on the southern coast (city of Gath , the land of Gaza) and the Phoenicians settled in the seaports of the North. The Canaanites in the lowlands again to flourish in the city-states, Megiddo eg prosperity which lasted until about -900.
Main article: Archaeological Data on the Philistines. On one wall of the temple of Amun-Re at Karnak is recounted the military campaign of Shishak I. in Canaan. It is not, unfortunately, precisely dated by archaeologists, but it occurred between -950 and -800. The Canaanite cities of the north, Rehov , Beth Shean, Megiddo, the Jezreel Valley are under attack. The list of Karnak has 150 names of towns and villages, including some Jewish villages in the highlands north of Jerusalem , the destruction of the Canaanite city-states left the field open to the people of the northern kingdom of Israel to expand.
The First Book of Kings 14:25-26 1R recounts the episode in its own way:
"The fifth year of King Rehoboam, King of Egypt, Shishak , marched against Jerusalem. He did deliver the treasures of the Temple of Yahweh and those of the royal palace, absolutely everything, even all the gold shields Solomon had made. "
Finkelstein and Silbermann stressed that Jerusalem is not among the 150 names on the list of Karnak and the target of Shishak I. was Canaanite city-state, and some Jewish villages in the highlands north of Jerusalem: the small mountain village situated on the promontory of the City of David was not part of its objectives. The biblical narrative provides a date for this expedition, -926, but use this time to reset the carbon-14 constitutes an abuse methodological .
The kingdom of Israel under the Omrides (period from -884 to -842)
Main article: Archaeological Data and Omri Omrides. The existence of the kingdom of Israel begins with the dynasty of Omrides (-884 to -842). It is particularly disliked in the Bible, accused of the worst turmoil and stricken from the deepest contempt. Neighboring kingdoms, Aram , Moab and Assyria , we provide sources for their historical archives and three stelae: the Tel Dan Stele (in Aramaic, in which the king of Damascus , probably Hazael , boasts of killing .
The obvious success of the northern kingdom can be conceived only in the harmonious integration of the component of the Canaanite population, large and active to Jezreel in particular (the total population of Israel is then evaluated to 350 000 inhabitants). They stress the cultural openness of the Phoenicia , which are regularly found pottery, and 200 of finely carved ivory plaques have been discovered in the palace at Samaria.
The authors, noting that the names of characters and places the biblical narrative becomes, here, historical, biblical authors argue that most hate success Omrides and "ownership" for their achievements attributed to Solomon.
The kingdom of Israel in the shadow of the Assyrian Empire (period from -842 to -720)
For 120 years, the successors of Omrides continuing development of a country with centralized administration, with industrial production methods and a thriving export trade. The country is under attack from the king of Aram, Hazael , ravaging Tel Rehov , Beth Shean , Megiddo and Jezreel. Damascus occupies the region of Dan and Hazor for a short time, leaving various inscriptions and buildings. But Assyria submit Aram : Israel is freed .
In Samaria, 350 were found potsherds with a Hebrew inscription ( ), dating from the reign of Jeroboam II (-788 to -747), registration is an indication of source jars of standard oil Olive and wine. At Megiddo , still under Jeroboam II , a hydraulic system is built underground, with a gallery 70 meters drilled in 25 meters depth, which leads to a cave and provides drinking water supply in case of emergency ( ). Relationship more or less maintained vassalage with Assyria allows the development of a very active trade (olive oil, wine, probably horses) with what is the biggest regional power, both economically and militarily. The prosperity of Israel reached its climax.
The successors of Jeroboam II are distancing themselves from Assyria, without measuring the unequal balance of forces. Assyria, having taken possession of Damascus invaded Israel, destroyed the cities of Hazor , of Dan and Beth-Shean . The dwellings of Megiddo are burned, but the two palaces and stables are kept to make a great center of Megiddo Regional Assyrian. After a last Jewish conspiracy against Assyria, Shalmaneser V launches a campaign of liquidation, Israel is dismantled, the fifth of its population is exiled to Babylon and Assyrian colonists settled in their place. In 722, when Sargon II came to power, there is nothing left of the Northern Kingdom .
In the biblical story, the disappearance of Israel is presented as divine punishment of depravity of the country .
Iron Age III: the kingdom of Judah and the creation of the biblical story
Israel under the administration Assyrian
Tiglath-Pileser III establishes two Assyrian provinces in place of the kingdom of Israel D'ru ( Dor ) and Magidu ( Megiddo ). Population displacement on a large scale that it puts in place in these provinces left a lasting imprint in the geopolitics of the region. These displacements are national differences disappear at the point that no political entity does not develop in areas conquered during the following centuries. The Greek Seleucid impose their control without military risk, unlike what happens with Judah and rebellion Hasmonean. In the highlands, four kingdoms remained independent: Udmu ( Edom ), Bit Ammn ( Ammon ), M'ab ( Moab ). These realms are too small and weak to be a target of Assyria, but they serve its interests by taking part in trade with Saudi. The Assyrian conquest led to a decline of urban life in Israel. Only the provincial capitals ( Megiddo , Dor and Samaria ) are fortified. The population lives mainly in farms and villages.
The transformation of Judah
"It is precisely the fall of Israel which will allow Judah to become a fully formed state, with a professional clergy and educated scribes, only able to undertake such a task. "
The people of Judah grows considerably. Also according to the authors, Israeli archaeologist Magen Broshi shows, for the excavations carried out in recent decades that Jerusalem is experiencing a population explosion, overflowing the old cornice of the City of David (6 hectares) to cover the West Hill in its entirety (75 hectares) ( ), surrounded by an impressive rampart. Growth reads the position of graves and dating: as burying the dead outside the cities, tombs draw the outline. Farms installed across the hinterland, Lachish becomes a major administrative center protected by a wall formidable Valley Beer Sheva knows the same expansion and population of Judah from 10 000-120 000. The production of olive oil and wine at once reached an industrial stage, inscriptions appear, as well as numerous administrative ostraca ( ). Population growth advantage of the massive influx of refugees from the defunct Northern Kingdom, and the economy of a successful trade with the Assyrian Empire.
To this period that archaeologists assumed to be a palace or administrative center at Ramat Rachel , on the outskirts of Jerusalem.
At the same time, under Hezekiah , a school of religious thought develops and begins to disappear, in favor of pure worship of YHWH, the various cults campaigns ( Baal , fertility cults, cults of ancestors) .
War and survival (the period from -705 to -639)
After the death of Sargon II (-705), Hezekiah think I can dispense with the support of Egypt, from the tutelage of Assyria. It is a disastrous mistake in assessing the balance of power, as Sennacherib , came to power (-701), will raise a huge army.
Hezekiah to prepare a Jerusalem headquarters, is a tunnel of 512 meters to lead by a drop of 30 inches, the water of the Gihon spring into a tank located inside the city walls. It is alluded to in the Bible (2 Kings 20:20). The achievement represents a technological tour de force for the tunnel, very pronounced S-shape , was drilled at both ends. A commemorative plaque is engraved at the point where both teams have reached . He also works at the administrative organization of the kingdom as evidenced by the seals LMLK.
Sennacherib laid siege to the main fortress of Judah, Lachish. It seizes and destroys the region to reduce its economic capacity to zero. He illustrates his victory in Nineveh , a bas-relief of 20 m long and 3 meters high, where the topography is accurately described ( ). David Ussishkin , in excavations conducted in 1970 found the ramp leading Assyrian and cons ramp-defense. Hezekiah submits, pays a heavy price to Assyria , which saves Jerusalem , but many Judeans were deported to Assyria and the best lands of western grain, a Part of the Shefelah , are given by Sennacherib to Philistine city-state.
Manasseh , Hezekiah's successor, Judah restores a prosperous vassal subject, which serves as a buffer to Assyria against Egypt ( ). Developed land in the area of Beer Sheva , so the population is multiplied by 10 between -800 and -700. Judah is integrated with the economic exchange of Assyria and also practices the trade of luxury goods and the incense with the Saudi , exporting to that country for olive oil . Three ostraca inscribed in Arabic on vases southern Judean typically found in the City of David , proving that the Arab population took hold. The main lines of communication linking the Shefelah western, central production of olive oil the most important of all the ancient Near East (the olives from the hills of the highlands), with the Assyrians , the Phoenicians , to Egypt and Arabia, via Gaza , that Assyria considered as a customs post on the slopes of the desert . On a site near Gaza were found numerous bones of camels and dromedaries, all adults, serving, according to archaeo-zoologist Paula Wapnich, transportation of caravans in the seventh century BC. AD.
According to Finkelstein and Silberman, The Bible stands of Hezekiah a flattering portrait. She remains quiet about his mistake, but praises him for having saved Jerusalem. It is very critical of Manasseh , who was accused of restoring all the abominations of the past. This is Josiah , the king the most pious of the history of Judah in the Bible, which will come to power .
The great reform (-639 to -586)
In Egypt, Psammetichus I. established his capital at Sais in the delta, pushing Assyria, and -656, re-established its control over almost all the territories of the Levant , to the Phoenicia. It controls and agricultural wealth and the means of communication. Assyrian power declined, torn by civil war in -623. The collapse of Assyria leaves the field open for Judah , who dreams of recovering the northern highlands, to centralize worship in Jerusalem and establish a large state panisralite.
Josiah was 8 years old when he enters the throne -639. The religious movement which will give Deuteronomy began under Hezekiah. It is the political context, supportive relationship that will enable it to take its full extent.
According to Finkelstein and Silberman:
"So, to rid the worship of YHWH that encumbered slag , Josiah initiated the most radical reform and the most puritanical of the history of Judah. He attacked first idolatrous rites practiced even within the Temple of Jerusalem 2R 23:4-7 ... He demolished the shrines that were dedicated to cult foreign ... It also puts an end to the worship of the priests rural ... It establishes the broad national religious holidays ... "
According to the Bible, then they found the book of the law , whom God had given to Moses in the Sinai , and this book became the model for the writing of Deuteronomy and everything Josiah enacts, in Jerusalem, -622 .
The political project of great struggle panisralite was prepared by the drafting of the Deuteronomic history and part of the Pentateuch , combining the stories of regional variants of the Patriarchs Abraham , Isaac and Jacob , underlining the dominance of Judah in Israel , placing the story the conquest of Canaan in specific locations, hitting the exclusion Canaanites , that is to say non-residents of Israel , and strictly prohibiting the marriage of Israelites with foreign women, fear, according to the biblical text that 'they induce their husbands to idolatry.
"It is unclear whether any previous version of Israel's history had been made at the time of Hezekiah, or by dissident factions, under the long reign of Manasseh, or if all of the epic was composed entirely during the reign of Josiah. However, it is clear that many characters described by the Deuteronomic history, such as very pious Joshua, David and Hezekiah and Ahaz and Manasseh-apostates are presented as mirrors, positive or negative, Josiah. From this point of view, history has nothing Deuteronomic history in the modern sense. Its composition was responding to a double need, ideological and theological. "
About the Deuteronomic history, Finkelstein and Silberman, accused reduce everything to Josiah, state in their second book The sacred kings of the Bible, p. 20:
"Born into a montage from a variety of earlier sources, it does not result from an original work, written by an individual or group of authors living at the same time. "
Still according to The Bible Unearthed, the Book of Deuteronomy also contains ethical codes and terms for the well-being . "His laws express a new concern for the weak and needy." The claim of a worker to an officer who employs him has been found on a ostracon in a fortress dated shortly before -600, evidence that reform is effective in practice ( ). Archaeology also shows that the symbols of other religions as official seals were disappearing at the same date to the late seventh century ( ). The plot finally shows (ostraca), under Josiah , the spread of literacy, certainly fostered by the writings and sermons .
The Egyptian domination
Psammetichus I , feeling the Egyptian interests in Asia threatened by the pressure of Babylon , flies to the rescue of Nineveh in -616, but the Assyrian capital falls -612. Necho II 's successor Psammetichus I. , decided to campaign on north and captured Megiddo. At the Battle of Megiddo, Josiah is killed. The exact circumstances of his death are not established , nor the precise reason for the Egyptian attack .
According to the authors, the Deuteronomic ambitions are shattered. The Bible gives a very accurate account of power struggles that take place then, involving the Egypt and Babylon , an account confirmed by completely independent historical sources. The presence of Necho II at Megiddo indicates that Egypt has become the kingdom of Judah in the vacuum that followed the fall of the Assyrian empire. Egypt however, fails to take lasting control of the region. Syria was conquered by the Neo- Babylonians from -605 and the rest of the Levant in -603.
Nebuchadnezzar II , after crushing the Egyptian army at Carchemish in Syria in -605, march on Jerusalem and took it to -587. Campaigns are looted, Arad and Lachish fell, Jerusalem is burned ( ) and destroyed systematically ( ). The Temple is destroyed, the population was taken captive to Babylon.
The Babylonian domination and exile
The Neo- Babylonians bring widespread destruction to the kingdom of Judah and the kingdom of Transjordan. The devastated province is diminished. The objective of Babylon is to create a buffer zone between Egypt and Babylonia. The rural population survives, but at a smaller scale. Babylon does nothing to develop the region economically or to protect the villages in outlying areas. The Babylonians focus on the reconstruction of areas destroyed by Babylonian Assyria. The deportation of the Judean elite is used to develop these areas. Not only the Jews who were deported but the Philistines. The collapse of the central system has resulted in the infiltration of semi-nomadic groups in southern Judea and the formation of the province of Idumea in the Persian period.
According to Finkelstein and Silberman, about exile, it is important to distinguish information about exiles from those on the lives of those who remained.
Before the invasion of the Babylonians (the Chaldeans in the Bible), the total population of Judah is estimated at 75 000, 15 000 and 15 000 in Jerusalem on farmland around the capital. Based on biblical sources, it seems reasonable to assume that the total exiles did not exceed 15 000-20 000. Judah three out of four, approximately, are thus left behind . In Jerusalem, an activity resumed on the promontory of the City of David , but the western hill, burnt, was not reoccupied. The occupation, however, continues south and north, especially in Mitzpah Benjamin (13 km north of the city, near the present city of Ramallah ). Oded Lipschits, the University of Tel Aviv , revealed by excavations that Mitzpah had not been destroyed and had become the largest regional center in the sixth century. The second book of Kings is also the seat of government of Gedaliah to Mitzpah . An activity also persists in Bethel and Gibeon , and to Bethlehem.
The Persian province of Judea Babylon is conquered by Cyrus the Great in -539. The Persian satrap Beyond the River (west of the Euphrates ) has, according to the historian Herodotus , the Palestine , the Syrian , the Phoenicia and Cyprus . The extent of Yehud is confirmed by archeology, from the mapping of hundreds of seals and pottery from the Persian period with the Aramaic word Yehud ).
According to biblical tradition, one of the first acts of Cyrus after his conquest of Babylon is to let the Jewish exiles return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple, a task completed around -515. However, it is likely that it was only earlier in the mid- fifth century that Jerusalem becomes the capital of Judea. Persians may have first wanted to make Judea a client kingdom ruled by a king from the Davidic line descendant of Jehoiachin , but in the middle of the fifth century , Judah became a theocracy ruled by high priests and hereditary often by a governor appointed by the Jewish Persians, in charge of order and ensuring the payment of tribute.
According to biblical tradition, Ezra and Nehemiah came to Jerusalem in the mid- fifth century , the first to reinforce the practice of the Torah and the second with the status of governor and royal emissary to restore the walls of the city. The Bible mentions the tension between returning exiles and Judah remained in Judea, the first pushing the participation of the second reconstruction of the Temple. This attitude is partly based on new religious ideas developed during the exile in Babylon and probably in part because of disputes over property issues. Other tensions between the Judean aristocracy and the party represented by Nehemiah are discernible, as is the case in the history of Tobiah , the Ammonite servant, that is to say, the governor of a province in Transjordan , who was stripped of its privileges within the Temple. The activity of Ezra and Nehemiah is an attempt by one faction of Jewish Babylonia to create a separate company, ritually pure and inspired by the prophecy of Ezekiel.
Development of biblical history
Cyrus II and later his son Cambyses , encourage the return of exiles and leave a large autonomy to local elites (without implanting non-Jewish immigrants). These elites, imbued with the Deuteronomic ideas, social status and economic level, from the exile community. Yehud is probably the policy of Cyrus and Cambyses, a buffer between Persia and Egypt. Yehud is now governed politically by high commissioners appointed by the authority and Persian, religiously, by the priests. This is a significant change since any trace of the Davidic monarchy has gone.
For the biblical scholar Frank Moore Cross, the Deuteronomic history has 2 versions: (Dtr1) dating of Josiah , version (DTR2) being Postexilic . The second version has the task of telling the rest of the story since the death of Josiah and explain theologically why the story of the pious Josiah had entered this bloody way. The responsibility was assigned to the abominable Manasseh , Josiah, who delayed the inevitable as well as possible sanctions .
Always for authors, according to the book of Ezra (Ezra 4.3), the Second Temple was rebuilt and rebuilding by Zerubbabel, a distant descendant of David , with the high priest Joshua , ends in -516. Ezra , then Nehemiah , strictly enforce the Deuteronomic law (see Archaeological Data on the Jewish community of Elephantine ) and ensure, in particular, to enforce the prohibition against Jews marrying foreign women . Concerned about issues of purity and assimilation, they establish a clear boundary between the Jewish people and its neighbors.
The religious elite in power in Jerusalem, provides the most likely source "P", largely Postexilic, the Bible . The history of the Patriarchs shrine in the cave of Hebron , takes a particular resonance with the loss of the city under foreign occupation of Edom . It is also the source of "P" which is the origin of Abraham in Ur , in Chaldea , instead of knowing a very great antiquity, but also an important religious center, from -550, under King Nabonidus . The texts emphasize the idea of the centrality of Judah and promote its superiority over its neighbors. Finally, always about the influence of the clerical elite, we see that the biblical story of Exodus has a series of similarities with the situation of returnees from Babylon : very hard to stay abroad for which they have lost their freedom, the military defeat of those who kept them captive, returning in large numbers, crossing the desert in their country because of foreign occupation, surrounded by hostile populations, they found that only part of the Promised Land.
Hellenistic period
Main article: Hellenistic Judaism. In 332, the province of Yehud passes from the hands of the Persians to that of Alexander the Great. On the death of Alexander -322, his generals divided the empire between them. Ptolemy I get Egypt and Palestine. At the battle of Gaza in -312, Ptolemy himself master of Syria. On 7 October -312 , date of his victory, especially for Jews mark the start of the era of the dominion of the Greeks, dating system which is still in use in the Middle Ages. Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285-246) translated The Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) in Greek, is the version called the Septuagint , Targum or Chiviim, which illustrates the opening on the Hellenistic culture. The Letter of Aristeas reports a version of the circumstances of this translation.
The ancient Persian province under the Ptolemies retains its autonomy regime dominated by the power of high priests. Judea urbanizing and has a grid which reflects the administrative stay Caunos Zeno of the coastal plain and Jerusalem under Ptolemy III Evergetes between -260 and -258 ist.
In -198 , Antiochus III Megas defeated Scopas, General Ptolemy V Epiphanes to Panion , near the headwaters of the Jordan (later Caesarea Philippi). In -197 , Judea is subject to the Seleucids. The province was incorporated into the Ptolemaic Empire Seleucid the side of the province of Samaria. The relationship between the Seleucids and the Jews are first best. Judaea Antiochus benefitted from economic privileges which contribute to its economic growth and attract Babylonian communities. Jerusalem is exempted from tribute for 3 years in the -193/-190. It was during this prosperous period that the scribe hirosolomitain Yeshua ben Shimon (or Yeshua ben Shimon) ben Eleazar ben Sira praises the high priesthood of Simon II the Just , the purity of worship and the Temple of Jerusalem, the theocratic regime. The high priesthood of Simon, a disciple of Antigonus of Sokho , leaves a trail so important in Jewish memory that three centuries later, tannaim will trace the origin of their tradition to founding master.
However the situation changed in -189. Antiochus III was defeated by Scipio. At the Peace of Apamea , Antiochus the Romans submit to enormous benefits. These financial problems caused by the Seleucid Empire Rome plunge into crisis. The Seleucid king does not hesitate to seize the temple treasures, including that of Elymas , and his successors that covet the Temple of Jerusalem. This destabilization extends to Jerusalem, where the climate deteriorates Onias III. The priestly aristocracy benefited from the economic boom thanks to the actions of Antiochus III, but the regime of the high priests deprived of access to political power, political emancipation through Hellenism. The attempt of Antiochus IV Epiphanes to impose Hellenistic culture in Jerusalem reflected the tensions of the corporation Judean. Judea plunged into civil war with the Maccabean revolt. Taking advantage of the weakening of the Seleucid and its divisions, the Hasmonean able to establish an independent Jewish kingdom. Military action to enable them to regain Idumea and Samaria, the ancient kingdom of Israel.
Hasmonean Period
Main article: Hasmonean. Demographics
Religion
Writing
Main article: Archaeological Data on the first written in Hebrew. References
- Yohanan Aharoni, The Archaeology of the Land of Israel: From the Prehistoric Beginnings to the End Of The First Temple Period
- In the magazine Le Monde de la Bible, Special Issue, 2006, Bayard, William M. Schniedewind biblical scholars (Professor of Biblical Studies at the University of California), Pierre and Franoise Bordreuil Briquel-Chatonnet (members of the Laboratory of Semitic Studies old CNRS-College de France) also lead to these conclusions.
- See the explanation given by Idar Sapir, archaeo-zoologist at the Museum of Zoology, University of Tel Aviv, in the film The Bible Unearthed, Chapter 7, episode 1.
- Ayelet Gilboa, Haifa University, The Bible Unearthed film, Chapter 7, episode 1.
- According to Finkelstein and Silberman, Martin North suggested that the genealogical link was added between geographically separated ancestral origin, to create a unified story about Abraham, so around Hebron (Judah). Also according to the authors, it is not established facts.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 36)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 101)
- See below, exile and return
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 103)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 162)
- Op cit. p. 163
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 165)
- According to the authors, award made by David Ussishkin , then a young student of Yadin. The argument was not dating, but the resemblance of the plan with a biblical description.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 167)
- According to Finkelstein and Silberman, the team is now dated -800 and, after careful analysis of the soil, the American Deborah Cantrell was able to provide convincing evidence that it has housed horses. It is very likely that horses bred and trained for use in tanks. Sargon II made use of it during the Assyrian occupation of Israel. See Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman, The Bible's sacred kings. In Search of David and Solomon, Bayard, 2006, p. 156-158.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 48)
- The authors detail the calculation. According 1R 6:1 , Exodus took place 480 years before the construction of the Temple of Jerusalem in the 4th year of King Solomon. According to Ex 12:40 , the Israelites suffered 430 years of bondage in Egypt, with an additional 200 years during which the patriarchs lived in Canaan.
- See the movie The Bible Unearthed, Chapter 6 of Episode 1. According to Dominique Charpin, assyrologue at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, the Amorites are a people well documented; Amorite migration took place from west to east, while migration in the story of Abraham is from east to west ; we can not make a link between the two. According to Jacques Briend, a biblical scholar at the Catholic Institute of Paris, the name of Abraham is relatively widespread, it occurs at different times, it does therefore not a true test of the dating of the Patriarchs. For John Van Seters, Universt of North Carolina, all put together proves nothing about the historicity of Abraham.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 70)
- See bondage in ancient Egypt : by Bernadette Menu, it is wrong to speak of slaves about these prisoners of war. Indeed, if these men could be free not sold, they were nevertheless endowed with full legal capacity, rights, family and property, and were even fiscally responsible. See Bernadette Menu, P. 839 of Dictionary of Ancient Officer Jean Leclant, 2464 pages, PUF, 2005. According to Christiane Desroches Noblecourt , they were few in number, and found freedom by prepayment or marriage with a woman or a free man: see this author The Woman at the time of the pharaohs, Stock, 1988. pp. 180-185). According to this view, slavery was introduced into Egypt by the Greeks.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 72)
- In particular, according to the authors, Donald B. Redford , director of excavations at the city of Mendes in the Delta.
- The language of the Hyksos would be alien to the family of Semitic languages, see Dominique Valbelle , P. 1105 of Dictionary of Ancient Officer Jean Leclant, 2464 pages, PUF, 2005.
- According to Olivier Rouault (per 1026 of Dictionary of Ancient Officer Jean Leclant, 2464 pages, PUF, 2005), apiru are not the Hebrews.
- Op cit. p. 75
- According to the authors, there is no trace of the Hebrews in the documents of any other country until the stele from Tel Dan , after -1000.
- Fortresses discovered and excavated by Eliezer Oren, of Ben Gurion University of the Negev in 1970.
- Op cit. p. 77
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 80-82)
- This negative result is returned, however, significant success by the same method in the discovery of the first Habitat Israelites, yet affecting a small population (see below, Who Were the Israelites?)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 86)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 90)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 98)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 107)
- See Archaeological Data from the Philistines.
- According to the authors, locally, a curiosity draws the attention of the inhabitants. They built a legend to explain or highlight.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 112)
- Op cit. pp. 373-384
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 376)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 127)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 383)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 381)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 114)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 134)
- Op cit., p. table 138
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 144)
- According to the authors, archeology shows that Judah was no match at this time to have an army and, consequently, no battle ever took place between an army of Israelites and the army very real one, the Philistines. See archaeological data from the Philistines.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 146)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 155)
- Aram is Syria.
- "House ... "Is a term of art found in other inscriptions to designate other dynasties. The Assyrian records refer to the kingdom of Israel under the name "House of Omri."
- See Scientific methods of archeology. The controversy over the dating of major buildings in the northern part is still not completely settled. Currently, there is no evidence for suspecting that some of these buildings are the work of Solomon. View Data on archaeological David and Solomon. See also T. Levy and T. Higham, Editors, "Radiocarbon Dating and the Iron Age of the Southern Levant: The Bible and Archaeology Today", London, 2005 (27 contributions, 448 pages), given by external link. This book shows that many teams working on the issue and that the use of new techniques (mass spectrometry, calibration and statistical processing) dramatically improves the precision of dating.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 169)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 171)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 160)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 173)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 182)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 184)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 187)
- Finkelstein calls this type of error a "circular reasoning" you can not use a date in the Bible, taken from a story that does not, moreover, the ground (in reality, it is not Jerusalem is attacked), to calibrate the carbon-14 dating. According to him, archaeologist Amihai Mazar , however, this method uses no hesitation in readjusting to various digs (unrelated, of course, with Jerusalem) the calibration of carbon-14 to -925 on the date of biblical Jerusalem. See in this regard the Bible record of the magazine La Recherche No. 391, November 2005, p. 43 (article by Amihai Mazar ) and p. 47 (article by two staff scientists Amihai Mazar).
- The assignment of two palaces at Megiddo to Omrides is now confirmed by dating carbon 14 dating. The Triple Door pincers of Megiddo, studied in detail by David Ussishkin , is dated -800. It is connected to the stables ( Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman , The Bible's sacred kings. In Search of David and Solomon, Bayard, 2006, p. 260, p. 153 and p. 258).
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 224)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 246)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 226)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 239)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 241)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 215) sketches P. 215, note p. 220, table p. 253
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 251)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 254)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 259)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 263)
- a and b ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 279) map
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 280)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 28)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 292)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 297) illustration
- a and b ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 301)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 304)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 310)
- According to the authors, Josiah however, fails to eliminate them all, since many figurines of the goddess Asherah, arguing, standing, her breasts with her hands, were found in private homes.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 318)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 322)
- For example Arthur Grenke see reception of the book. The criticism is that Arthur Grenke , ignoring the field work to reduce the book to a historical thesis, ignores the fact that archaeological excavations are not dependent the date of writing of the Bible.
- a and b ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 323)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 325)
- Op cit. p. 326
- According to the authors, we have no independent historical source. For them, according to 11:29 p.m. 2R , Necho II summoned him and kills him. Always for them, according 2Ch 35:20-24 , he was mortally wounded during the battle (( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 28).
- According to the authors, it is unclear whether this is because Josiah had pursued an offensive northward toward Jezreel , westward toward the Shefelah , or southward toward the Philistia and routes Arab Trade ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 330)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 334)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 346)
- see The Bible Unearthed P. 346
- 2 Kings 25:23
- According to the authors, it is the city where, in the story of the conquest of Canaan , YHWH agrees to stop the sun in its course so that the Hebrews could complete their victory the night before.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 401)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 399), map p. 348
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 402)
- Op cit. p. 341
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 344)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 339-340)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 350)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 352)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 353)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 351)
Bibliography
- Amihai Mazar and Israel Finkelstein, The Quest for the Historical Israel: Debating Archaeology and the History of Early Israel, 2007
- Israel Finkelstein , The Bible Unearthed , New revelations of archeology, Bayard , 2002 ( ISBN 2-07-042939-3 ) (The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the origin of sacred texts icts, New York, Free Press, 2001 - reissued in 2004 by Gallimard-Folio History)
- Israel Finkelstein , The Kings of the Sacred Bible, In Search of David and Solomon, Bayard Centurion, 2006 ( ISBN 2227472243 ) (David and Solomon. In search of the Bible's Sacred Kings and the Roots of Western Tradition, published by The Free Press, New York, 2006).
- Jean-Michel Maldam , The Bible to the test of science, the question of archeology.
- Amihai Mazar, Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, from 10.000 to 586 BCE, 1990
- (In) Oded Lipschits (ed.) and Manfred Oeming (eds.), Judah & the Judeans In The Persian Period, Einsensbrauns, Winona Lake, 2006 ( a href = "Sp% C3% A9cial: Ouvrages_de_r% C3% A9f% C3% A9rence/9781575061047" class = "mw-internal-magiclink isbn"> ISBN 9781575061047)
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"I killed . This listing also demonstrates that at the time of registration, the kingdom of Israel ("the house of Omri" Assyrian archives) is different from the realm of "the house of David."
However, as the conquest of Canaan , the allocation of large buildings at Megiddo to Solomon is questioned as the tests are finer and more precise dating. It appears that the Philistine pottery continued to be made well after the death of David , so that the use of debris as their dating technique has led to errors (estimate too old for certain dates). Progressive dating carbon-14 allows for little to obtain reliable and accurate assessments , which show in particular that the palaces of Megiddo were built several decades after the death of Solomon and the famous stables still much later .
But the main doubt about the extent of the kingdom of David and that of Solomon comes from the study of the southern part, which includes Jerusalem , the capital. The strong geographic disparity between the northern highlands, well watered and fertile, and the south, very dry and arid, is found in the demographics. About 45,000 Israelites for all Highlands -1000, 90% are in the north, in 5000 only the southern part . The habitat in the southern part is very sparse. As shown by the work of David Ussishkin , the Jerusalem of Solomon , like David , is not a great city: it is a typical village in the highlands. David and Solomon were not ruled empire and it is logical that they have left no trace of their existence, nor in the Egyptian documents, or documents in Mesopotamia.
Only in the seventh century BC. BC that Jerusalem is becoming a great city, maintaining a luxury trade with distant countries, a literate city. The united monarchy, as described in the Bible does not represent the reality of the tenth century BC. AD : Biblical Jerusalem is the capital symbolizes the ideal kingdom of Judah and the united monarchy is a political project, perhaps that of King Josiah .
The beginnings of the kingdom of Israel (tenth century BC.)
Until 1980, the vision of a unified kingdom, strongly centralized, with large buildings Solomon , vision recovery in Bible , was widely accepted by archaeologists and historians. In this sense, the break between Israel and Judah gave rise to two States, twins was thought, assumed them as fully organized administratively, legally and militarily.
Only after the first surveys of bottom habitats in the highlands was found that the contrast between the northern and southern zone, which resulted from climatic contrasts, from the first wave of settlements at the age of Bronze Age , contrast sharply marked economic potential. The pattern of settlement in the north, around Shechem , then dense, with a sedentary farming. That of the south around Jerusalem , is poor and no permanent structures . We find the contrast in the second wave, the Middle Bronze Age , being the main center Shechem and Jerusalem being so strongly fortified. In Late Bronze , the Amarna Letters show in detail the rivalry between Shechem (where there Labayou) and Jerusalem (where there Abdi-Heba), valleys and coastal plain are organized into city-states reduced but highly populated areas . At the time of David and Solomon , archeology shows Judah still economically marginal, while Israel prospered, developing the specialized cultivation of olives and grapes, the technique of manufacture of oil and wine and market economy with trade and transport . To -900, Israel is already the seeds of a fully formed, with administrative centers and fortified palaces in stone at Megiddo, Jezreel and Samaria. Jerusalem , by contrast, is really a little urbanized before 700 BC, the industrialization of production does not begin until after that date.
Judah and Israel have in common the worship of YHWH, but also other gods, their dialects are close and Hebrew, from -800, they will use the same alphabet.
On the lowlands, the Philistines consolidated their presence on the southern coast (city of Gath , the land of Gaza) and the Phoenicians settled in the seaports of the North. The Canaanites in the lowlands again to flourish in the city-states, Megiddo eg prosperity which lasted until about -900.
On one wall of the temple of Amun-Re at Karnak is recounted the military campaign of Shishak I. in Canaan. It is not, unfortunately, precisely dated by archaeologists, but it occurred between -950 and -800. The Canaanite cities of the north, Rehov , Beth Shean, Megiddo, the Jezreel Valley are under attack. The list of Karnak has 150 names of towns and villages, including some Jewish villages in the highlands north of Jerusalem , the destruction of the Canaanite city-states left the field open to the people of the northern kingdom of Israel to expand.
The First Book of Kings 14:25-26 1R recounts the episode in its own way:
"The fifth year of King Rehoboam, King of Egypt, Shishak , marched against Jerusalem. He did deliver the treasures of the Temple of Yahweh and those of the royal palace, absolutely everything, even all the gold shields Solomon had made. "
Finkelstein and Silbermann stressed that Jerusalem is not among the 150 names on the list of Karnak and the target of Shishak I. was Canaanite city-state, and some Jewish villages in the highlands north of Jerusalem: the small mountain village situated on the promontory of the City of David was not part of its objectives. The biblical narrative provides a date for this expedition, -926, but use this time to reset the carbon-14 constitutes an abuse methodological .
The kingdom of Israel under the Omrides (period from -884 to -842)
The existence of the kingdom of Israel begins with the dynasty of Omrides (-884 to -842). It is particularly disliked in the Bible, accused of the worst turmoil and stricken from the deepest contempt. Neighboring kingdoms, Aram , Moab and Assyria , we provide sources for their historical archives and three stelae: the Tel Dan Stele (in Aramaic, in which the king of Damascus , probably Hazael , boasts of killing .
The obvious success of the northern kingdom can be conceived only in the harmonious integration of the component of the Canaanite population, large and active to Jezreel in particular (the total population of Israel is then evaluated to 350 000 inhabitants). They stress the cultural openness of the Phoenicia , which are regularly found pottery, and 200 of finely carved ivory plaques have been discovered in the palace at Samaria.
The authors, noting that the names of characters and places the biblical narrative becomes, here, historical, biblical authors argue that most hate success Omrides and "ownership" for their achievements attributed to Solomon.
The kingdom of Israel in the shadow of the Assyrian Empire (period from -842 to -720)
For 120 years, the successors of Omrides continuing development of a country with centralized administration, with industrial production methods and a thriving export trade. The country is under attack from the king of Aram, Hazael , ravaging Tel Rehov , Beth Shean , Megiddo and Jezreel. Damascus occupies the region of Dan and Hazor for a short time, leaving various inscriptions and buildings. But Assyria submit Aram : Israel is freed .
In Samaria, 350 were found potsherds with a Hebrew inscription ( ), dating from the reign of Jeroboam II (-788 to -747), registration is an indication of source jars of standard oil Olive and wine. At Megiddo , still under Jeroboam II , a hydraulic system is built underground, with a gallery 70 meters drilled in 25 meters depth, which leads to a cave and provides drinking water supply in case of emergency ( ). Relationship more or less maintained vassalage with Assyria allows the development of a very active trade (olive oil, wine, probably horses) with what is the biggest regional power, both economically and militarily. The prosperity of Israel reached its climax.
The successors of Jeroboam II are distancing themselves from Assyria, without measuring the unequal balance of forces. Assyria, having taken possession of Damascus invaded Israel, destroyed the cities of Hazor , of Dan and Beth-Shean . The dwellings of Megiddo are burned, but the two palaces and stables are kept to make a great center of Megiddo Regional Assyrian. After a last Jewish conspiracy against Assyria, Shalmaneser V launches a campaign of liquidation, Israel is dismantled, the fifth of its population is exiled to Babylon and Assyrian colonists settled in their place. In 722, when Sargon II came to power, there is nothing left of the Northern Kingdom .
In the biblical story, the disappearance of Israel is presented as divine punishment of depravity of the country .
Iron Age III: the kingdom of Judah and the creation of the biblical story
Israel under the administration Assyrian
Tiglath-Pileser III establishes two Assyrian provinces in place of the kingdom of Israel D'ru ( Dor ) and Magidu ( Megiddo ). Population displacement on a large scale that it puts in place in these provinces left a lasting imprint in the geopolitics of the region. These displacements are national differences disappear at the point that no political entity does not develop in areas conquered during the following centuries. The Greek Seleucid impose their control without military risk, unlike what happens with Judah and rebellion Hasmonean. In the highlands, four kingdoms remained independent: Udmu ( Edom ), Bit Ammn ( Ammon ), M'ab ( Moab ). These realms are too small and weak to be a target of Assyria, but they serve its interests by taking part in trade with Saudi. The Assyrian conquest led to a decline of urban life in Israel. Only the provincial capitals ( Megiddo , Dor and Samaria ) are fortified. The population lives mainly in farms and villages.
The transformation of Judah
"It is precisely the fall of Israel which will allow Judah to become a fully formed state, with a professional clergy and educated scribes, only able to undertake such a task. "
The people of Judah grows considerably. Also according to the authors, Israeli archaeologist Magen Broshi shows, for the excavations carried out in recent decades that Jerusalem is experiencing a population explosion, overflowing the old cornice of the City of David (6 hectares) to cover the West Hill in its entirety (75 hectares) ( ), surrounded by an impressive rampart. Growth reads the position of graves and dating: as burying the dead outside the cities, tombs draw the outline. Farms installed across the hinterland, Lachish becomes a major administrative center protected by a wall formidable Valley Beer Sheva knows the same expansion and population of Judah from 10 000-120 000. The production of olive oil and wine at once reached an industrial stage, inscriptions appear, as well as numerous administrative ostraca ( ). Population growth advantage of the massive influx of refugees from the defunct Northern Kingdom, and the economy of a successful trade with the Assyrian Empire.
To this period that archaeologists assumed to be a palace or administrative center at Ramat Rachel , on the outskirts of Jerusalem.
At the same time, under Hezekiah , a school of religious thought develops and begins to disappear, in favor of pure worship of YHWH, the various cults campaigns ( Baal , fertility cults, cults of ancestors) .
War and survival (the period from -705 to -639)
After the death of Sargon II (-705), Hezekiah think I can dispense with the support of Egypt, from the tutelage of Assyria. It is a disastrous mistake in assessing the balance of power, as Sennacherib , came to power (-701), will raise a huge army.
Hezekiah to prepare a Jerusalem headquarters, is a tunnel of 512 meters to lead by a drop of 30 inches, the water of the Gihon spring into a tank located inside the city walls. It is alluded to in the Bible (2 Kings 20:20). The achievement represents a technological tour de force for the tunnel, very pronounced S-shape , was drilled at both ends. A commemorative plaque is engraved at the point where both teams have reached . He also works at the administrative organization of the kingdom as evidenced by the seals LMLK.
Sennacherib laid siege to the main fortress of Judah, Lachish. It seizes and destroys the region to reduce its economic capacity to zero. He illustrates his victory in Nineveh , a bas-relief of 20 m long and 3 meters high, where the topography is accurately described ( ). David Ussishkin , in excavations conducted in 1970 found the ramp leading Assyrian and cons ramp-defense. Hezekiah submits, pays a heavy price to Assyria , which saves Jerusalem , but many Judeans were deported to Assyria and the best lands of western grain, a Part of the Shefelah , are given by Sennacherib to Philistine city-state.
Manasseh , Hezekiah's successor, Judah restores a prosperous vassal subject, which serves as a buffer to Assyria against Egypt ( ). Developed land in the area of Beer Sheva , so the population is multiplied by 10 between -800 and -700. Judah is integrated with the economic exchange of Assyria and also practices the trade of luxury goods and the incense with the Saudi , exporting to that country for olive oil . Three ostraca inscribed in Arabic on vases southern Judean typically found in the City of David , proving that the Arab population took hold. The main lines of communication linking the Shefelah western, central production of olive oil the most important of all the ancient Near East (the olives from the hills of the highlands), with the Assyrians , the Phoenicians , to Egypt and Arabia, via Gaza , that Assyria considered as a customs post on the slopes of the desert . On a site near Gaza were found numerous bones of camels and dromedaries, all adults, serving, according to archaeo-zoologist Paula Wapnich, transportation of caravans in the seventh century BC. AD.
According to Finkelstein and Silberman, The Bible stands of Hezekiah a flattering portrait. She remains quiet about his mistake, but praises him for having saved Jerusalem. It is very critical of Manasseh , who was accused of restoring all the abominations of the past. This is Josiah , the king the most pious of the history of Judah in the Bible, which will come to power .
The great reform (-639 to -586)
In Egypt, Psammetichus I. established his capital at Sais in the delta, pushing Assyria, and -656, re-established its control over almost all the territories of the Levant , to the Phoenicia. It controls and agricultural wealth and the means of communication. Assyrian power declined, torn by civil war in -623. The collapse of Assyria leaves the field open for Judah , who dreams of recovering the northern highlands, to centralize worship in Jerusalem and establish a large state panisralite.
Josiah was 8 years old when he enters the throne -639. The religious movement which will give Deuteronomy began under Hezekiah. It is the political context, supportive relationship that will enable it to take its full extent.
According to Finkelstein and Silberman:
"So, to rid the worship of YHWH that encumbered slag , Josiah initiated the most radical reform and the most puritanical of the history of Judah. He attacked first idolatrous rites practiced even within the Temple of Jerusalem 2R 23:4-7 ... He demolished the shrines that were dedicated to cult foreign ... It also puts an end to the worship of the priests rural ... It establishes the broad national religious holidays ... "
According to the Bible, then they found the book of the law , whom God had given to Moses in the Sinai , and this book became the model for the writing of Deuteronomy and everything Josiah enacts, in Jerusalem, -622 .
The political project of great struggle panisralite was prepared by the drafting of the Deuteronomic history and part of the Pentateuch , combining the stories of regional variants of the Patriarchs Abraham , Isaac and Jacob , underlining the dominance of Judah in Israel , placing the story the conquest of Canaan in specific locations, hitting the exclusion Canaanites , that is to say non-residents of Israel , and strictly prohibiting the marriage of Israelites with foreign women, fear, according to the biblical text that 'they induce their husbands to idolatry.
"It is unclear whether any previous version of Israel's history had been made at the time of Hezekiah, or by dissident factions, under the long reign of Manasseh, or if all of the epic was composed entirely during the reign of Josiah. However, it is clear that many characters described by the Deuteronomic history, such as very pious Joshua, David and Hezekiah and Ahaz and Manasseh-apostates are presented as mirrors, positive or negative, Josiah. From this point of view, history has nothing Deuteronomic history in the modern sense. Its composition was responding to a double need, ideological and theological. "
About the Deuteronomic history, Finkelstein and Silberman, accused reduce everything to Josiah, state in their second book The sacred kings of the Bible, p. 20:
"Born into a montage from a variety of earlier sources, it does not result from an original work, written by an individual or group of authors living at the same time. "
Still according to The Bible Unearthed, the Book of Deuteronomy also contains ethical codes and terms for the well-being . "His laws express a new concern for the weak and needy." The claim of a worker to an officer who employs him has been found on a ostracon in a fortress dated shortly before -600, evidence that reform is effective in practice ( ). Archaeology also shows that the symbols of other religions as official seals were disappearing at the same date to the late seventh century ( ). The plot finally shows (ostraca), under Josiah , the spread of literacy, certainly fostered by the writings and sermons .
The Egyptian domination
Psammetichus I , feeling the Egyptian interests in Asia threatened by the pressure of Babylon , flies to the rescue of Nineveh in -616, but the Assyrian capital falls -612. Necho II 's successor Psammetichus I. , decided to campaign on north and captured Megiddo. At the Battle of Megiddo, Josiah is killed. The exact circumstances of his death are not established , nor the precise reason for the Egyptian attack .
According to the authors, the Deuteronomic ambitions are shattered. The Bible gives a very accurate account of power struggles that take place then, involving the Egypt and Babylon , an account confirmed by completely independent historical sources. The presence of Necho II at Megiddo indicates that Egypt has become the kingdom of Judah in the vacuum that followed the fall of the Assyrian empire. Egypt however, fails to take lasting control of the region. Syria was conquered by the Neo- Babylonians from -605 and the rest of the Levant in -603.
Nebuchadnezzar II , after crushing the Egyptian army at Carchemish in Syria in -605, march on Jerusalem and took it to -587. Campaigns are looted, Arad and Lachish fell, Jerusalem is burned ( ) and destroyed systematically ( ). The Temple is destroyed, the population was taken captive to Babylon.
The Babylonian domination and exile
The Neo- Babylonians bring widespread destruction to the kingdom of Judah and the kingdom of Transjordan. The devastated province is diminished. The objective of Babylon is to create a buffer zone between Egypt and Babylonia. The rural population survives, but at a smaller scale. Babylon does nothing to develop the region economically or to protect the villages in outlying areas. The Babylonians focus on the reconstruction of areas destroyed by Babylonian Assyria. The deportation of the Judean elite is used to develop these areas. Not only the Jews who were deported but the Philistines. The collapse of the central system has resulted in the infiltration of semi-nomadic groups in southern Judea and the formation of the province of Idumea in the Persian period.
According to Finkelstein and Silberman, about exile, it is important to distinguish information about exiles from those on the lives of those who remained.
Before the invasion of the Babylonians (the Chaldeans in the Bible), the total population of Judah is estimated at 75 000, 15 000 and 15 000 in Jerusalem on farmland around the capital. Based on biblical sources, it seems reasonable to assume that the total exiles did not exceed 15 000-20 000. Judah three out of four, approximately, are thus left behind . In Jerusalem, an activity resumed on the promontory of the City of David , but the western hill, burnt, was not reoccupied. The occupation, however, continues south and north, especially in Mitzpah Benjamin (13 km north of the city, near the present city of Ramallah ). Oded Lipschits, the University of Tel Aviv , revealed by excavations that Mitzpah had not been destroyed and had become the largest regional center in the sixth century. The second book of Kings is also the seat of government of Gedaliah to Mitzpah . An activity also persists in Bethel and Gibeon , and to Bethlehem.
The Persian province of Judea Babylon is conquered by Cyrus the Great in -539. The Persian satrap Beyond the River (west of the Euphrates ) has, according to the historian Herodotus , the Palestine , the Syrian , the Phoenicia and Cyprus . The extent of Yehud is confirmed by archeology, from the mapping of hundreds of seals and pottery from the Persian period with the Aramaic word Yehud ).
According to biblical tradition, one of the first acts of Cyrus after his conquest of Babylon is to let the Jewish exiles return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple, a task completed around -515. However, it is likely that it was only earlier in the mid- fifth century that Jerusalem becomes the capital of Judea. Persians may have first wanted to make Judea a client kingdom ruled by a king from the Davidic line descendant of Jehoiachin , but in the middle of the fifth century , Judah became a theocracy ruled by high priests and hereditary often by a governor appointed by the Jewish Persians, in charge of order and ensuring the payment of tribute.
According to biblical tradition, Ezra and Nehemiah came to Jerusalem in the mid- fifth century , the first to reinforce the practice of the Torah and the second with the status of governor and royal emissary to restore the walls of the city. The Bible mentions the tension between returning exiles and Judah remained in Judea, the first pushing the participation of the second reconstruction of the Temple. This attitude is partly based on new religious ideas developed during the exile in Babylon and probably in part because of disputes over property issues. Other tensions between the Judean aristocracy and the party represented by Nehemiah are discernible, as is the case in the history of Tobiah , the Ammonite servant, that is to say, the governor of a province in Transjordan , who was stripped of its privileges within the Temple. The activity of Ezra and Nehemiah is an attempt by one faction of Jewish Babylonia to create a separate company, ritually pure and inspired by the prophecy of Ezekiel.
Development of biblical history
Cyrus II and later his son Cambyses , encourage the return of exiles and leave a large autonomy to local elites (without implanting non-Jewish immigrants). These elites, imbued with the Deuteronomic ideas, social status and economic level, from the exile community. Yehud is probably the policy of Cyrus and Cambyses, a buffer between Persia and Egypt. Yehud is now governed politically by high commissioners appointed by the authority and Persian, religiously, by the priests. This is a significant change since any trace of the Davidic monarchy has gone.
For the biblical scholar Frank Moore Cross, the Deuteronomic history has 2 versions: (Dtr1) dating of Josiah , version (DTR2) being Postexilic . The second version has the task of telling the rest of the story since the death of Josiah and explain theologically why the story of the pious Josiah had entered this bloody way. The responsibility was assigned to the abominable Manasseh , Josiah, who delayed the inevitable as well as possible sanctions .
Always for authors, according to the book of Ezra (Ezra 4.3), the Second Temple was rebuilt and rebuilding by Zerubbabel, a distant descendant of David , with the high priest Joshua , ends in -516. Ezra , then Nehemiah , strictly enforce the Deuteronomic law (see Archaeological Data on the Jewish community of Elephantine ) and ensure, in particular, to enforce the prohibition against Jews marrying foreign women . Concerned about issues of purity and assimilation, they establish a clear boundary between the Jewish people and its neighbors.
The religious elite in power in Jerusalem, provides the most likely source "P", largely Postexilic, the Bible . The history of the Patriarchs shrine in the cave of Hebron , takes a particular resonance with the loss of the city under foreign occupation of Edom . It is also the source of "P" which is the origin of Abraham in Ur , in Chaldea , instead of knowing a very great antiquity, but also an important religious center, from -550, under King Nabonidus . The texts emphasize the idea of the centrality of Judah and promote its superiority over its neighbors. Finally, always about the influence of the clerical elite, we see that the biblical story of Exodus has a series of similarities with the situation of returnees from Babylon : very hard to stay abroad for which they have lost their freedom, the military defeat of those who kept them captive, returning in large numbers, crossing the desert in their country because of foreign occupation, surrounded by hostile populations, they found that only part of the Promised Land.
Hellenistic period
Main article: Hellenistic Judaism. In 332, the province of Yehud passes from the hands of the Persians to that of Alexander the Great. On the death of Alexander -322, his generals divided the empire between them. Ptolemy I get Egypt and Palestine. At the battle of Gaza in -312, Ptolemy himself master of Syria. On 7 October -312 , date of his victory, especially for Jews mark the start of the era of the dominion of the Greeks, dating system which is still in use in the Middle Ages. Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285-246) translated The Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) in Greek, is the version called the Septuagint , Targum or Chiviim, which illustrates the opening on the Hellenistic culture. The Letter of Aristeas reports a version of the circumstances of this translation.
The ancient Persian province under the Ptolemies retains its autonomy regime dominated by the power of high priests. Judea urbanizing and has a grid which reflects the administrative stay Caunos Zeno of the coastal plain and Jerusalem under Ptolemy III Evergetes between -260 and -258 ist.
In -198 , Antiochus III Megas defeated Scopas, General Ptolemy V Epiphanes to Panion , near the headwaters of the Jordan (later Caesarea Philippi). In -197 , Judea is subject to the Seleucids. The province was incorporated into the Ptolemaic Empire Seleucid the side of the province of Samaria. The relationship between the Seleucids and the Jews are first best. Judaea Antiochus benefitted from economic privileges which contribute to its economic growth and attract Babylonian communities. Jerusalem is exempted from tribute for 3 years in the -193/-190. It was during this prosperous period that the scribe hirosolomitain Yeshua ben Shimon (or Yeshua ben Shimon) ben Eleazar ben Sira praises the high priesthood of Simon II the Just , the purity of worship and the Temple of Jerusalem, the theocratic regime. The high priesthood of Simon, a disciple of Antigonus of Sokho , leaves a trail so important in Jewish memory that three centuries later, tannaim will trace the origin of their tradition to founding master.
However the situation changed in -189. Antiochus III was defeated by Scipio. At the Peace of Apamea , Antiochus the Romans submit to enormous benefits. These financial problems caused by the Seleucid Empire Rome plunge into crisis. The Seleucid king does not hesitate to seize the temple treasures, including that of Elymas , and his successors that covet the Temple of Jerusalem. This destabilization extends to Jerusalem, where the climate deteriorates Onias III. The priestly aristocracy benefited from the economic boom thanks to the actions of Antiochus III, but the regime of the high priests deprived of access to political power, political emancipation through Hellenism. The attempt of Antiochus IV Epiphanes to impose Hellenistic culture in Jerusalem reflected the tensions of the corporation Judean. Judea plunged into civil war with the Maccabean revolt. Taking advantage of the weakening of the Seleucid and its divisions, the Hasmonean able to establish an independent Jewish kingdom. Military action to enable them to regain Idumea and Samaria, the ancient kingdom of Israel.
Hasmonean Period
Main article: Hasmonean. Demographics
Religion
Writing
Main article: Archaeological Data on the first written in Hebrew. References
- Yohanan Aharoni, The Archaeology of the Land of Israel: From the Prehistoric Beginnings to the End Of The First Temple Period
- In the magazine Le Monde de la Bible, Special Issue, 2006, Bayard, William M. Schniedewind biblical scholars (Professor of Biblical Studies at the University of California), Pierre and Franoise Bordreuil Briquel-Chatonnet (members of the Laboratory of Semitic Studies old CNRS-College de France) also lead to these conclusions.
- See the explanation given by Idar Sapir, archaeo-zoologist at the Museum of Zoology, University of Tel Aviv, in the film The Bible Unearthed, Chapter 7, episode 1.
- Ayelet Gilboa, Haifa University, The Bible Unearthed film, Chapter 7, episode 1.
- According to Finkelstein and Silberman, Martin North suggested that the genealogical link was added between geographically separated ancestral origin, to create a unified story about Abraham, so around Hebron (Judah). Also according to the authors, it is not established facts.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 36)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 101)
- See below, exile and return
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 103)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 162)
- Op cit. p. 163
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 165)
- According to the authors, award made by David Ussishkin , then a young student of Yadin. The argument was not dating, but the resemblance of the plan with a biblical description.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 167)
- According to Finkelstein and Silberman, the team is now dated -800 and, after careful analysis of the soil, the American Deborah Cantrell was able to provide convincing evidence that it has housed horses. It is very likely that horses bred and trained for use in tanks. Sargon II made use of it during the Assyrian occupation of Israel. See Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman, The Bible's sacred kings. In Search of David and Solomon, Bayard, 2006, p. 156-158.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 48)
- The authors detail the calculation. According 1R 6:1 , Exodus took place 480 years before the construction of the Temple of Jerusalem in the 4th year of King Solomon. According to Ex 12:40 , the Israelites suffered 430 years of bondage in Egypt, with an additional 200 years during which the patriarchs lived in Canaan.
- See the movie The Bible Unearthed, Chapter 6 of Episode 1. According to Dominique Charpin, assyrologue at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, the Amorites are a people well documented; Amorite migration took place from west to east, while migration in the story of Abraham is from east to west ; we can not make a link between the two. According to Jacques Briend, a biblical scholar at the Catholic Institute of Paris, the name of Abraham is relatively widespread, it occurs at different times, it does therefore not a true test of the dating of the Patriarchs. For John Van Seters, Universt of North Carolina, all put together proves nothing about the historicity of Abraham.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 70)
- See bondage in ancient Egypt : by Bernadette Menu, it is wrong to speak of slaves about these prisoners of war. Indeed, if these men could be free not sold, they were nevertheless endowed with full legal capacity, rights, family and property, and were even fiscally responsible. See Bernadette Menu, P. 839 of Dictionary of Ancient Officer Jean Leclant, 2464 pages, PUF, 2005. According to Christiane Desroches Noblecourt , they were few in number, and found freedom by prepayment or marriage with a woman or a free man: see this author The Woman at the time of the pharaohs, Stock, 1988. pp. 180-185). According to this view, slavery was introduced into Egypt by the Greeks.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 72)
- In particular, according to the authors, Donald B. Redford , director of excavations at the city of Mendes in the Delta.
- The language of the Hyksos would be alien to the family of Semitic languages, see Dominique Valbelle , P. 1105 of Dictionary of Ancient Officer Jean Leclant, 2464 pages, PUF, 2005.
- According to Olivier Rouault (per 1026 of Dictionary of Ancient Officer Jean Leclant, 2464 pages, PUF, 2005), apiru are not the Hebrews.
- Op cit. p. 75
- According to the authors, there is no trace of the Hebrews in the documents of any other country until the stele from Tel Dan , after -1000.
- Fortresses discovered and excavated by Eliezer Oren, of Ben Gurion University of the Negev in 1970.
- Op cit. p. 77
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 80-82)
- This negative result is returned, however, significant success by the same method in the discovery of the first Habitat Israelites, yet affecting a small population (see below, Who Were the Israelites?)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 86)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 90)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 98)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 107)
- See Archaeological Data from the Philistines.
- According to the authors, locally, a curiosity draws the attention of the inhabitants. They built a legend to explain or highlight.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 112)
- Op cit. pp. 373-384
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 376)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 127)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 383)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 381)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 114)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 134)
- Op cit., p. table 138
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 144)
- According to the authors, archeology shows that Judah was no match at this time to have an army and, consequently, no battle ever took place between an army of Israelites and the army very real one, the Philistines. See archaeological data from the Philistines.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 146)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 155)
- Aram is Syria.
- "House ... "Is a term of art found in other inscriptions to designate other dynasties. The Assyrian records refer to the kingdom of Israel under the name "House of Omri."
- See Scientific methods of archeology. The controversy over the dating of major buildings in the northern part is still not completely settled. Currently, there is no evidence for suspecting that some of these buildings are the work of Solomon. View Data on archaeological David and Solomon. See also T. Levy and T. Higham, Editors, "Radiocarbon Dating and the Iron Age of the Southern Levant: The Bible and Archaeology Today", London, 2005 (27 contributions, 448 pages), given by external link. This book shows that many teams working on the issue and that the use of new techniques (mass spectrometry, calibration and statistical processing) dramatically improves the precision of dating.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 169)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 171)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 160)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 173)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 182)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 184)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 187)
- Finkelstein calls this type of error a "circular reasoning" you can not use a date in the Bible, taken from a story that does not, moreover, the ground (in reality, it is not Jerusalem is attacked), to calibrate the carbon-14 dating. According to him, archaeologist Amihai Mazar , however, this method uses no hesitation in readjusting to various digs (unrelated, of course, with Jerusalem) the calibration of carbon-14 to -925 on the date of biblical Jerusalem. See in this regard the Bible record of the magazine La Recherche No. 391, November 2005, p. 43 (article by Amihai Mazar ) and p. 47 (article by two staff scientists Amihai Mazar).
- The assignment of two palaces at Megiddo to Omrides is now confirmed by dating carbon 14 dating. The Triple Door pincers of Megiddo, studied in detail by David Ussishkin , is dated -800. It is connected to the stables ( Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman , The Bible's sacred kings. In Search of David and Solomon, Bayard, 2006, p. 260, p. 153 and p. 258).
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 224)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 246)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 226)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 239)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 241)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 215) sketches P. 215, note p. 220, table p. 253
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 251)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 254)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 259)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 263)
- a and b ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 279) map
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 280)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 28)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 292)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 297) illustration
- a and b ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 301)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 304)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 310)
- According to the authors, Josiah however, fails to eliminate them all, since many figurines of the goddess Asherah, arguing, standing, her breasts with her hands, were found in private homes.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 318)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 322)
- For example Arthur Grenke see reception of the book. The criticism is that Arthur Grenke , ignoring the field work to reduce the book to a historical thesis, ignores the fact that archaeological excavations are not dependent the date of writing of the Bible.
- a and b ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 323)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 325)
- Op cit. p. 326
- According to the authors, we have no independent historical source. For them, according to 11:29 p.m. 2R , Necho II summoned him and kills him. Always for them, according 2Ch 35:20-24 , he was mortally wounded during the battle (( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 28).
- According to the authors, it is unclear whether this is because Josiah had pursued an offensive northward toward Jezreel , westward toward the Shefelah , or southward toward the Philistia and routes Arab Trade ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 330)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 334)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 346)
- see The Bible Unearthed P. 346
- 2 Kings 25:23
- According to the authors, it is the city where, in the story of the conquest of Canaan , YHWH agrees to stop the sun in its course so that the Hebrews could complete their victory the night before.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 401)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 399), map p. 348
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 402)
- Op cit. p. 341
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 344)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 339-340)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 350)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 352)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 353)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 351)
Bibliography
- Amihai Mazar and Israel Finkelstein, The Quest for the Historical Israel: Debating Archaeology and the History of Early Israel, 2007
- Israel Finkelstein , The Bible Unearthed , New revelations of archeology, Bayard , 2002 ( ISBN 2-07-042939-3 ) (The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the origin of sacred texts icts, New York, Free Press, 2001 - reissued in 2004 by Gallimard-Folio History)
- Israel Finkelstein , The Kings of the Sacred Bible, In Search of David and Solomon, Bayard Centurion, 2006 ( ISBN 2227472243 ) (David and Solomon. In search of the Bible's Sacred Kings and the Roots of Western Tradition, published by The Free Press, New York, 2006).
- Jean-Michel Maldam , The Bible to the test of science, the question of archeology.
- Amihai Mazar, Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, from 10.000 to 586 BCE, 1990
- (In) Oded Lipschits (ed.) and Manfred Oeming (eds.), Judah & the Judeans In The Persian Period, Einsensbrauns, Winona Lake, 2006 ( a href = "Sp% C3% A9cial: Ouvrages_de_r% C3% A9f% C3% A9rence/9781575061047" class = "mw-internal-magiclink isbn"> ISBN 9781575061047)
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- Yohanan Aharoni, The Archaeology of the Land of Israel: From the Prehistoric Beginnings to the End Of The First Temple Period
- In the magazine Le Monde de la Bible, Special Issue, 2006, Bayard, William M. Schniedewind biblical scholars (Professor of Biblical Studies at the University of California), Pierre and Franoise Bordreuil Briquel-Chatonnet (members of the Laboratory of Semitic Studies old CNRS-College de France) also lead to these conclusions.
- See the explanation given by Idar Sapir, archaeo-zoologist at the Museum of Zoology, University of Tel Aviv, in the film The Bible Unearthed, Chapter 7, episode 1.
- Ayelet Gilboa, Haifa University, The Bible Unearthed film, Chapter 7, episode 1.
- According to Finkelstein and Silberman, Martin North suggested that the genealogical link was added between geographically separated ancestral origin, to create a unified story about Abraham, so around Hebron (Judah). Also according to the authors, it is not established facts.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 36)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 101)
- See below, exile and return
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 103)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 162)
- Op cit. p. 163
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 165)
- According to the authors, award made by David Ussishkin , then a young student of Yadin. The argument was not dating, but the resemblance of the plan with a biblical description.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 167)
- According to Finkelstein and Silberman, the team is now dated -800 and, after careful analysis of the soil, the American Deborah Cantrell was able to provide convincing evidence that it has housed horses. It is very likely that horses bred and trained for use in tanks. Sargon II made use of it during the Assyrian occupation of Israel. See Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman, The Bible's sacred kings. In Search of David and Solomon, Bayard, 2006, p. 156-158.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 48)
- The authors detail the calculation. According 1R 6:1 , Exodus took place 480 years before the construction of the Temple of Jerusalem in the 4th year of King Solomon. According to Ex 12:40 , the Israelites suffered 430 years of bondage in Egypt, with an additional 200 years during which the patriarchs lived in Canaan.
- See the movie The Bible Unearthed, Chapter 6 of Episode 1. According to Dominique Charpin, assyrologue at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, the Amorites are a people well documented; Amorite migration took place from west to east, while migration in the story of Abraham is from east to west ; we can not make a link between the two. According to Jacques Briend, a biblical scholar at the Catholic Institute of Paris, the name of Abraham is relatively widespread, it occurs at different times, it does therefore not a true test of the dating of the Patriarchs. For John Van Seters, Universt of North Carolina, all put together proves nothing about the historicity of Abraham.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 70)
- See bondage in ancient Egypt : by Bernadette Menu, it is wrong to speak of slaves about these prisoners of war. Indeed, if these men could be free not sold, they were nevertheless endowed with full legal capacity, rights, family and property, and were even fiscally responsible. See Bernadette Menu, P. 839 of Dictionary of Ancient Officer Jean Leclant, 2464 pages, PUF, 2005. According to Christiane Desroches Noblecourt , they were few in number, and found freedom by prepayment or marriage with a woman or a free man: see this author The Woman at the time of the pharaohs, Stock, 1988. pp. 180-185). According to this view, slavery was introduced into Egypt by the Greeks.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 72)
- In particular, according to the authors, Donald B. Redford , director of excavations at the city of Mendes in the Delta.
- The language of the Hyksos would be alien to the family of Semitic languages, see Dominique Valbelle , P. 1105 of Dictionary of Ancient Officer Jean Leclant, 2464 pages, PUF, 2005.
- According to Olivier Rouault (per 1026 of Dictionary of Ancient Officer Jean Leclant, 2464 pages, PUF, 2005), apiru are not the Hebrews.
- Op cit. p. 75
- According to the authors, there is no trace of the Hebrews in the documents of any other country until the stele from Tel Dan , after -1000.
- Fortresses discovered and excavated by Eliezer Oren, of Ben Gurion University of the Negev in 1970.
- Op cit. p. 77
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 80-82)
- This negative result is returned, however, significant success by the same method in the discovery of the first Habitat Israelites, yet affecting a small population (see below, Who Were the Israelites?)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 86)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 90)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 98)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 107)
- See Archaeological Data from the Philistines.
- According to the authors, locally, a curiosity draws the attention of the inhabitants. They built a legend to explain or highlight.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 112)
- Op cit. pp. 373-384
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 376)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 127)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 383)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 381)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 114)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 134)
- Op cit., p. table 138
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 144)
- According to the authors, archeology shows that Judah was no match at this time to have an army and, consequently, no battle ever took place between an army of Israelites and the army very real one, the Philistines. See archaeological data from the Philistines.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 146)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 155)
- Aram is Syria.
- "House ... "Is a term of art found in other inscriptions to designate other dynasties. The Assyrian records refer to the kingdom of Israel under the name "House of Omri."
- See Scientific methods of archeology. The controversy over the dating of major buildings in the northern part is still not completely settled. Currently, there is no evidence for suspecting that some of these buildings are the work of Solomon. View Data on archaeological David and Solomon. See also T. Levy and T. Higham, Editors, "Radiocarbon Dating and the Iron Age of the Southern Levant: The Bible and Archaeology Today", London, 2005 (27 contributions, 448 pages), given by external link. This book shows that many teams working on the issue and that the use of new techniques (mass spectrometry, calibration and statistical processing) dramatically improves the precision of dating.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 169)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 171)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 160)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 173)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 182)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 184)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 187)
- Finkelstein calls this type of error a "circular reasoning" you can not use a date in the Bible, taken from a story that does not, moreover, the ground (in reality, it is not Jerusalem is attacked), to calibrate the carbon-14 dating. According to him, archaeologist Amihai Mazar , however, this method uses no hesitation in readjusting to various digs (unrelated, of course, with Jerusalem) the calibration of carbon-14 to -925 on the date of biblical Jerusalem. See in this regard the Bible record of the magazine La Recherche No. 391, November 2005, p. 43 (article by Amihai Mazar ) and p. 47 (article by two staff scientists Amihai Mazar).
- The assignment of two palaces at Megiddo to Omrides is now confirmed by dating carbon 14 dating. The Triple Door pincers of Megiddo, studied in detail by David Ussishkin , is dated -800. It is connected to the stables ( Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman , The Bible's sacred kings. In Search of David and Solomon, Bayard, 2006, p. 260, p. 153 and p. 258).
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 224)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 246)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 226)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 239)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 241)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 215) sketches P. 215, note p. 220, table p. 253
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 251)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 254)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 259)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 263)
- a and b ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 279) map
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 280)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 28)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 292)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 297) illustration
- a and b ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 301)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 304)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 310)
- According to the authors, Josiah however, fails to eliminate them all, since many figurines of the goddess Asherah, arguing, standing, her breasts with her hands, were found in private homes.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 318)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 322)
- For example Arthur Grenke see reception of the book. The criticism is that Arthur Grenke , ignoring the field work to reduce the book to a historical thesis, ignores the fact that archaeological excavations are not dependent the date of writing of the Bible.
- a and b ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 323)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 325)
- Op cit. p. 326
- According to the authors, we have no independent historical source. For them, according to 11:29 p.m. 2R , Necho II summoned him and kills him. Always for them, according 2Ch 35:20-24 , he was mortally wounded during the battle (( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 28).
- According to the authors, it is unclear whether this is because Josiah had pursued an offensive northward toward Jezreel , westward toward the Shefelah , or southward toward the Philistia and routes Arab Trade ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 330)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 334)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 346)
- see The Bible Unearthed P. 346
- 2 Kings 25:23
- According to the authors, it is the city where, in the story of the conquest of Canaan , YHWH agrees to stop the sun in its course so that the Hebrews could complete their victory the night before.
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 401)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 399), map p. 348
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 402)
- Op cit. p. 341
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 344)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 339-340)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 350)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 352)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 353)
- ( Finkelstein 2002 , p. 351)
Egyptians Kush Nok Numidia Armenian Assyrians Babylonians Israel / Jews Hittites " Ancient Persia " Elamites , Achaemenids , Parthian , Sassanid Phoenicians Scythians Sumerians Romans 
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