Pyramid of Chichn Itz , one of the most famous works of pre-Columbian civilizations.

The term civilization (or culture) Columbian (or pre-Hispanic, Hispanic-American countries for) applies to indigenous peoples of America , whose cultural unity was determined before the discovery of this continent by Columbus , or so More generally, before these groups Amerindians are defeated militarily and that the influence of culture European companies on these can be observed.

The history of these civilizations covers millennia passed since the first traces of settlement in the Upper Palaeolithic to the European colonization of the Americas to the modern era.

Pre-Columbian The term is used in the study of indigenous civilizations of the Americas, including Mesoamerica ( Olmec , Toltec , Zapotec , Mixtec , Aztec and Maya ) and South America ( Caral civilization and civilizations Andean : Inca , Moche , Chibcha and Caaris ). It is also used to designate the Civilization of the Mississippi in North America, which occupied the site of Cahokia at its peak in 1250 CE, was the largest city north of Mexico , a place that was not exceeded before 1800.

The American civilizations at the time of their encounter with Europeans had to their credit many impressive achievements. For example, the Aztecs had built one of the most impressive cities in the world, Tenochtitlan , the former site of Mexico , with an estimated population of 200,000. American civilizations also showed impressive knowledge of astronomy and mathematics. Many civilizations have left a trace pre-Columbian, either as permanent settlements, to agriculture , to architecture and urban monuments , major earthworks and complex social organizations.

Some, such as the Maya, had their own written records. Because most European Christians of the time considered these texts as manifestations of idolatry , many of these documents were destroyed in bonfires. Only a few hidden documents have survived, giving an overview of modern historians of ancient culture and knowledge.

Some of these civilizations were lost long ago when the first permanent European facilities (late ^fifteenth and early ^sixteenth centuries), and are known only through archaeological excavations. Others are contemporary with the colonial period and were described in historical accounts of the time. Some of the people who founded these civilizations still exist. They retain traditions and different practices dating back to pre-Columbian times, combining them with other measures with European contact.

Chronology

Chronology based on the data items on each of Civilization

The upper (grayscale) is the North American range.
The middle part (warm colors) is the area of Mesoamerica.
The bottom (cool colors) is the area of South America.

History

Hunter-gatherers Crop simple Crop complex / chiefdoms

Major crops in pre-Columbian America

Occupation zones of pre-Columbian cultures in North America

Migration in Asia

It is believed that the nomads who came from Asia arrived in America by crossing the land Beringia , the region which is now the Bering Strait and perhaps along the Northwest coast. DNA evidence has been found among Native Americans in their mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) inherited from the mother, a discovery that provides arguments for the theory of multiple founder populations emigrated from Asia, although it does not exclude the possibility a single migration. Over the millennia, the arrivals are distributed in North America and South America. The exact date when the first group of people emigrated to America is the subject of much debate. One of the first identifiable culture is the Clovis culture , with sites dating back some 13,000 years. However, the existence of the oldest sites dating back 20,000 years has been claimed. Some genetic studies estimate the early colonization of the Americas between 40,000 and 13,000 years. In addition, several successive waves of immigration has been proposed .

Series models of migration are currently divided into two general approaches. The first is the theory with a brief chronology of the first migration beyond Alaska to the New World occurring no earlier than between 14,000 and 17,000 years, followed by successive waves of immigrants ^{, , ,} The second is the theory of the long chronology, which suggests that the first group of migrants have reached the new world at a much earlier date, probably 50,000 or 40,000 years or even more ^{, , ,} .

It was discovered in both North America and South America , artifacts that were dated by carbon-14 to 14,000 before present , and considering that human beings have reached the Cape Horn to the southern end of South America at that time. Most experts agree that the Inuit and other peoples arrived separately and at a much later date, probably during the first millennium AD, by moving the ice from Siberia towards the Alaska.

North America

See detailed articles: North American Indians , Native Americans in the United States and civilization Mississippian

After, or migration, it has happened thousands of years before the first great civilizations appear, the emergence of the first can go back to 5000 BC. The inhabitants of the Americas were first of hunter-gatherers. Even after the emergence of advanced civilizations from hunter-gatherers inhabited the greater part of the continent until the eighteenth ^century. Many archaeological cultures can be identified by certain classifications, including the period Palaeoamerican old , the late period Palaeoamerican the Archaic period , the former Woodland period , the Woodland period average and the late Woodland period.

The first Palaeoamerican were soon spread throughout the Americas, splitting into hundreds of tribes and nations of different cultures . Paleoindian adaptation in North America was probably characterized by the formation of small highly mobile groups composed of about 20 to 50 members of an extended family. These groups moved from one place to another when the usual resources were depleted or when seeking new sources of supply . Paleoindian groups were effective hunters and used a variety of tools. These include instruments more or less specialized high performance for cutting meat and hide processing. For much of the Paleoindian period, it is considered that these groups have survived mainly by hunting of megafauna disappeared today as mastodons and bison .

The climate of North America has finally stabilized around the year 8000 BC. AD, when the weather becomes very similar to those of today . This led to widespread dissemination of migration, culture methods, then a dramatic increase in population throughout the Americas . For thousands of years, indigenous peoples of America have domesticated and cultivated a wide range of plant species. These species now constitute 50-60% of all cultures around the world . The vastness and variety of climates, the ecology of the vegetation , the fauna , and separations have implicitly defined the relief among ancient cultural or linguistic divisions. The identity of a people is in part defined by language because language influences on patterns of social life and spiritual practices . According to oral traditions of most indigenous peoples of the Americas, they have lived there since the genesis, described by a broad range of traditional stories of creation.

Upon the arrival of Europeans, many native North American tribes formed hunter-gatherers semi-nomadic, others had established sedentary and agricultural civilizations. Many were then formed new tribes or confederations in response to European colonization. The best-known groups included the Huron , the Haida , the Apache , the Cherokee , the Sioux , the Delawares , the Algonquins , the Choctaws , the Mohegans , the Iroquois (of which there are different tribes, the Mohawks , the Oneidas , the Seneca , the Cayuga , the Onondaga and finally, the Tuscarora and the Inuit. Although not as technologically advanced as the Mesoamerican civilizations further south, there were large pre-Columbian civilizations settled in the territories that constitute TODAY 'Today the United States of America. The Iroquois nations or "people of the longhouse form a single political and social structure that has been advanced and important source of inspiration, even if it did not directly influence the development subsequent democratic government of the United States which represented a break with the monarchy stronger than the Europeans had known.

Woodland Period

Hopewell Mounds Park National Historic Hopewell culture in Ohio

The Woodland period of pre-Columbian cultures of North America refers to a period extending from about 1000 before the Common Era to 1000 AD in the eastern part of North America. The term "wood" was coined in the 1930s and refers to prehistoric sites dating from the time of the archaic period and of the civilization of the Mississippi. Culture Adena and the period following the Hopewell culture were periods of construction of monumental'architecture and networking of trade and commerce across the continent.

This period is considered a stage of development without massive changes over a short period, but with continued development in the design of tools in stone and bone , the work of the leather , the development of textile techniques of cultivation and the shelter. Some forest peoples have continued to use the spears and the thrusters until the end of the period they were replaced by bows and arrows.

Civilization Mississippi

Mississippian site in Arkansas, site of the Archaeological Park, circa 1539. Illustration by Herb Roe.

The culture of Mississippi has spread in South-East and West in a region near the Atlantic coast to the edge of the plain, from the Gulf of Mexico to the far West, although it will be developed mainly in the area along the Mississippi. One of the hallmarks of this culture was the construction of large mounds of earth continuing the tradition of previous crops of Mound Builders. They developed the corn and other crops intensively, participated in an extensive trade network and formed a complex society stratified. The culture of the Mississippi appeared around 1000 AD, following the crops with less intensive and less centralized organization, those of the Woodland period. The largest site of this people, Cahokia - located near modern East St. Louis - may have reached a population of over 20,000 inhabitants. At its peak, between the ^twelfth and ^thirteenth centuries, Cahokia was the largest city in North America, although much larger cities have been built in Mesoamerica and South America. Monk's Mound , the large ceremonial center of Cahokia, remains the largest earthen construction throughout the prehistory of the New World. This culture reached its peak in 1200-1400, and in most sites, it seems to be coming into decline before the arrival of Europeans. Many Mississippian sites were visited by the expedition of Hernando de Soto in the 1540s, with rather dire consequences for both parties. Unlike the Spanish expeditions in Central America who conquered vast empires with relatively few men, members of the Soto expedition wandered in the Southeastern United States for four years, more and more ragged, losing still more men and equipment, to finally arrive in Mexico with only a small part of its original numbers. Local people found it is much worse because of social disorganization and diseases introduced by the expedition that decimated populations. When the Europeans returned to the region a hundred years later, almost all of Mississippian groups had disappeared and vast tracts of territory were virtually uninhabited ..

Timeline of North America

Mesoamerica

One of the pyramids on the upper level of Yaxchilan

Atlantean Tula , Hidalgo

Reference Periodization

Almost all Mesoamerican use as a reference framework common periodization into three major periods: Preclassic, Classic and Postclassic, themselves divided into several periods. The start and end of each period have been the subject of much research and discussion, but the following dates traditionally assigned to each period :

• Preclassic (also called formative, especially in publications in English): from 2500 BC. BC to 200 AD. AD ;
  • Preclassic Old: from 2500 BC. BC to 1200 BC. AD ;
  • Preclassic way: from 1200 BC. BC to 400 BC. AD ;
  • Preclassic recent (or late): from 400 BC. BC to 200 AD. AD ;
• Classic: from 200 to 900 AD. AD ;
  • old classic: from 200 to 600 AD. AD ;
  • Classic recent (or late): from 600 to 900 AD. AD ;
• Postclassic: from 900 AD. AD to the Spanish conquest;
  • Postclassic old: from 900 to 1200 AD. AD ;
  • Postclassic recent (or late): from 1200 to the Spanish conquest.

List of cultures Mesoamerican

This list is not exhaustive, summarizes the major civilizations and cultures and their geographical location in North or Central America.

This term is sometimes reduced to that of the classic Maya , from the ^third to the ^ninth century AD. AD and corresponding to a faster development and more important to civilization.

The Mesoamerica is the region extending from central Mexico south to the northwestern border of Costa Rica and gave birth to a group of agrarian civilizations stratified, culturally related and covering a period spanning about 3000 years before the European discovery of New World by Christopher Columbus. amricainnes Mesoamerica is the adjective generally used to designate this group of pre-Columbian cultures. This is an area occupied by a set of ancient cultures that merged their religious beliefs, their art and their architecture and technology in America for over three thousand years.

Between 1800 and 300 BCE, complex cultures began to emerge in Mesoamerica. Some have turned into pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations such as advanced Olmec , Teotihuacan , the Maya , the Zapotec , and Mixtec , the Huaxtecs the Purepechas , the Toltecs and the Mexica ( Aztecs ), who flourished for nearly 4,000 years before the first contact with Europeans.

These indigenous civilizations are credited with many inventions in: building temples, pyramids , and Mathematics , the astronomy , medicine, writing, calendars very precise, fine arts, intensive agriculture, the engineering and they designed the abacus calculator, a theology complex, not to mention the wheel / A>. However, in the absence of draft animals, the wheel was used only as a toy. They also used the copper and gold metallurgy native.

Archaic inscriptions on rocks and stone walls all over northern Mexico (especially in the State of Nuevo Len ) demonstrate an early propensity for counting in the territory of Mexico. The arithmetic system was one of the most complex in the world, with a numbering system in base 20. These first and oldest brands count were associated with astronomical events and stressed the importance of astronomy for the natives of Mexico before the arrival of Europeans. In fact, the most recent Mexican civilizations carefully built their cities and ceremonial centers according to certain astronomical events.

Larger cities such as Mesoamerican Teotihuacan , Mexico-Tenochtitlan and Cholula were among the largest in the world. These cities have expanded to become important centers for trade, exchange ideas, ceremonies, and theology, and they were under the influence of neighboring cultures over central Mexico.

While many city-states, kingdoms and empires there are disputed power and prestige, Mesoamerica can be regarded as having had five major civilizations: The Olmec, Teotihuacan, Toltecs, Aztecs and Mayans. These civilizations (with the exception of political fragmentation among the Maya) extended their reach across Mexico, and beyond, like no other. They consolidated their power and spread their influence in trade, art, politics, technology and theology. Other regional powers have made alliances with political and economic these four civilizations over a period of 4,000 years. Many made war with them but almost all people were found in these five spheres of influence.

Olmec Civilization

The first known civilization is the Olmec. This civilization established the cultural pattern that would inspire all successive indigenous civilizations in Mexico. The Olmec civilization began with a production of pottery in abundance, around 2300 BCE. Between 1800 and 1500 BC, the Olmecs have consolidated their power by forming chiefdoms which established their capital at a site known today as the San Lorenzo Tenochtitln , near the coast southeast of Veracruz. The Olmec influence extended across Mexico, Central America , and along the Gulf of Mexico. They have transformed the thinking of many people in establishing a new mode of government by inventing the temples, pyramids, writing, astronomy, art, mathematics, economics and religion. Their achievements have paved the way for the greatness of the Mayan civilization in the east and the civilizations of western and central Mexico.

civilization of Teotihuacan

The decline of the Olmecs caused a power vacuum in Mexico. Emerging from that vacuum emerged Teotihuacan, whose origin dates back to 300 BC. Around 150 AD, Teotihuacan was becoming the first true metropolis of what is now North America. Teotihuacan established a new political and economic order that had never existed in Mexico. His influence stretched across Mexico to Central America, founding new dynasties in the Maya cities of Tikal , Copn and Kaminaljuyu. The influence of Teotihuacan on the Maya civilization can not be understated: it transformed political power, artistic representations and the nature of the economy. In the city of Teotihuacan was in a cosmopolitan and diverse population. Most regional ethnicities of Mexico were represented in the city, such as the Zapotec region of Oaxaca. They lived in communal houses where they practiced their trades and contributed to the economic and cultural city. Around 500 AD, Teotihuacan had become the largest city in the world. The economic development of affected areas of Teotihuacan north of Mexico. It was a city whose monumental architecture reflected a new era in Mexican civilization, its political power declined to about 650, but its cultural influence persisted during the greater part of the millennium, until about 950.

Mayan architecture at Uxmal

Mayan Civilization

The height of Mayan civilization coincided with the peak of Teotihuacan. The period between 250 and 650 AD was a time of intense development achievements of the Maya civilization. Although many Maya city-states are never reached political unity on the model of civilizations of central Mexico, they exerted a tremendous intellectual influence upon Mexico and Central America. The Maya built some of the most advanced cities of the continent and made innovations in mathematics, astronomy and the calendar. The Maya writing system is the most sophisticated writing of the Americas: it consists of pictographs and syllabic elements in the form of texts whose support is the stone, pottery, wood, or books called codices highly perishable based on bark paper.

Aztec Civilization

With the decline of the Toltec civilization occurred political fragmentation in the Valley of Mexico. In this new political game the pretenders to the throne Toltec rivals have found out: the Aztecs. They too were a desert people, one of seven groups that were formerly called "Azteca", in memory of Aztlan , but they changed their name after years of migration. Since they were not from the Valley of Mexico, they were first considered crude and uninitiated to the ways of Nahua civilization. By political maneuvering and fierce combat skills, they managed to take power in Mexico at the head of the " Triple Alliance "(which included two other cities, Texcoco and Tacuba).

Latest from the plateaus of central Mexico, the Aztecs considered themselves the heirs, however, as the civilizations that preceded them. For them, art, sculpture, architecture, printmaking, the work of feather mosaics and timing, came from former inhabitants of Tula, the Toltecs.

The Mexica-Aztecs were masters of much of central Mexico around 1500 (while Yaquis, Coras and the Apaches dominated a significant part of the northern deserts), having subjugated most other states Regional in the 1470s. At their peak, 300,000 Mexica exercised their power over an empire taking a toll of about 10 million people (about half of the 24 million inhabitants). The modern name "Mexico" comes from the name of their people.

Their capital, Tenochtitlan , was the site of the modern capital of Mexico, Mexico. At its peak, it was one of the largest cities in the world with an estimated population of 300,000. The market created was the largest ever seen by the conquistadors upon their arrival.

Timeline of Mesoamerica

South America

List of South American cultures

This list is not exhaustive, summarizes the major civilizations and cultures and their geographical location in South America.

During the first millennium, the vast tropical forests of South America, mountains, plains, and coasts have formed the habitat of several tens of millions of people. Some groups formed permanent settlements. Among these groups there were the Chibcha (or "Muiscas" or "Muyscas"), the Valdivia and Tairona. The Chibcha of Colombia , the culture of Valdivia in Ecuador , the Quechua of Peru and the Aymara people of Bolivia were the four most important sedentary Indian groups in South America.

The theory of pre-Columbian contacts across the South Pacific between South America and Polynesia is supported by some evidence, although an irrefutable confirmation yet to discover. The spread by humans has been put forward to explain the presence in Oceania in pre-Columbian several species of cultivated plants originating in South America, as the gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) or sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas ). Evidence of archaeological direct contacts such pre-Columbian and such transportation is lacking. A 2007 paper published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences put forward the DNA and archeological evidence that the chickens were brought home in South America via Polynesia to the end of the pre-Columbian . The origin and dating remain an open question. Whether there was or not early exchanges between America and Polynesia, there is no evidence through human genetics, or archaeological, cultural or linguistic contact.

Civilization of Caral

On the coast north of present Peru , Caral civilization or Norte Chico was a civilization emerged about 3000 BCE (the time of emergence of urbanism in Mesopotamia .) This place is considered one of six places where civilization has arisen independently in the world. It included a group of urban scale, including Caral in the Supe Valley, is one of the sites the largest and best studied. Norte Chico is the oldest civilization known in America and it lasted until about 1800 BC.

Culture Valdivia

The culture of Valdivia was concentrated on the coast of Ecuador. Its existence was discovered recently as a result of archaeological discoveries. Their culture is the oldest in the Americas, extending over a period stretching from 3500 to 1800 BC. The people of Valdivia lived in communal houses built in a circle or oval around a central square. They were sedentary peoples who lived on agriculture and fishing, although they sometimes hunt deer. From the remains that were discovered, researchers have concluded that Valdivienne cultivated corn , the beans , the squash , the cassava , hot peppers, and cotton that was used to make clothes. Valdivia pottery was initially rough and practical, but it became more elaborate, delicate and large over time. They tended to use colors like red and gray, and painted pottery with a dark red is characteristic of the Valdivia period. In his works of ceramic and stone, Valdivia culture shows a progression works the simplest to the most complicated.

Caaris

The canaries were natives of the provinces of Ecuador today known under the names of Canar and Azuay. They formed a complex civilization in the advanced architecture and complex religious beliefs. The Incas were destroyed and burned most of their remains. The old town of the Canaries was rebuilt twice, first by the Inca city of Tomipamba and later by the colonial city of Cuenca. The city has also been considered as the site of El Dorado , the golden city of the Colombian mythology. (See Cuenca)

The Canaries are best known for pushing the invasion of the Incas at the cost of fierce resistance for many years until they are defeated at Tupac Yupanqui. Many of their descendants are still present in Canar. The majority has not mixed with the settlers or mixed race.

The Larco Museum houses the largest private collection of pre-Columbian art. Lima , Peru.

Culture of Chavin

Chavin culture, a civilization of South America with no writing, set up a network of trade and agriculture developed around 900 BC, according to some estimates and archaeological finds. Artifacts were discovered at a site called Chavn in modern Peru at an altitude of 3177 meters. Chavn civilization lasted from 900 to 300 BCE.

Chibcha

Communities Chibcha language were the most numerous, the most geographically extensive and highly developed socio-economic pre-Hispanic Colombia. ^In the third century, the Chibcha had established their civilization in the northern Andes. At one point, the Chibcha had occupied part of what is now Panama and the high plains east of the Sierra de Colombia.

Areas they occupied in British corresponded to the present departments of Santander (North and South), Boyac and Cundinamarca. This is where the first farms and the first industries were developed. Here also lies the origin of the independence movement. They are currently the richest regions of Colombia. The Chibcha had developed the most densely populated area between Maya and Inca empires. Besides the Quechua of Peru and the Aymara in Bolivia, the Chibcha of highland eastern and north-eastern Colombia has developed the most important culture of indigenous peoples settled in South America.

In the Andes Orientales, the Chibcha were composed of several tribes who spoke the same language (Chibchan). They were the following: the Muisca, the Guan, the cowardly, A'i Cofn , and Chitarero.

Culture Moche

The Moche culture flourished in Peru's northern coast there are about 1 500 to 2 000 years. The heritage of the Moche culture manifests itself in elaborate tombs. Some were recently unearthed by Christopher Donnan of UCLA in association with National Geographic Society.

Skilled artisans, the Moche were a technologically advanced people. They had contacts with distant peoples, such as Maya. What is known about the Moche culture derives from the study of their pottery, ceramic sculptures which reveal details of daily life. The Larco Museum in Lima , in Peru has a large collection of such ceramics. They show that the people practiced human sacrifice , was carrying out the rituals of blood-drinkers, and that their religion consisted of non-procreative sexual practices (such as fellatio ).

Inca Empire

Setting up their capital in the great city of Cuzco , in the form of Cougar Inca civilization dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as the Tawantin suyu, or "land of the four regions," in Quechua , the Inca civilization was highly developed and highly original. The domination of the Incas extended over nearly a hundred linguistic or ethnic communities, or 9 to 14 million people connected by a system of 25 000 km of road network. Cities were built with precision stone of unequal size, assembled over several levels of terrain. The Culture terraces were common practice in agriculture. There is evidence of the existence of a metallurgical performance and even Neurosurgery effective in the Inca civilization.

The Machu Picchu , the symbol of the Inca civilization.

Timeline of South America

In shades of blue and violet are the people in coastal areas.
In warm colors (orange, red, brown) are the peoples of the Andean regions.
In shades of green represent the peoples of the Amazon region.
Ranking from top to bottom correspond to the locations of crops, from north to south.

Agricultural Development

Main article: Colombian Exchange.

The first inhabitants of the Americas have developed their agriculture, cultivating and selecting the corn from a height of 2-5 cm in length to the size we know today. The potato , the tomato , the tomatillo (green tomato peeled), the pumpkins , the peppers , the squash , and beans , and pineapple , the sweet potato , the grain , the quinoa and amaranth , the chocolate , the Vanilla , the onions , and peanuts , and strawberries , the raspberries , and blackberries , and blueberries , and papaya and lawyers were among the other plants grown by the natives. Over two thirds of all types of food crops in the world originate in the Americas.

The natives began to use fire in a generalized way. The intentional burning of vegetation has been used to mimic the effects of natural fires that tended to clear forests, making travel easier and facilitating the growth of herbs and berry plants that are important for both Food for the production of drugs. This technique is the origin of the savannahs of pre-Columbian North America .

Although less common than in other world regions (Asia, Africa, Europe), Native Americans also practiced the breeding. In Mexico and Central America, the natives had domesticated the deer that was raised for its meat and milk for her sometimes. Andean civilizations raised the llamas and alpacas for the same reasons, while also using them as beasts of burden. The guinea pig was also raised for its meat in the Andes. The Iguana was also a source of meat in Mexico and in central and northern South America.

In the fifteenth ^century, the corn came from Mexico were cultivated in the Mississippi Delta and the East Coast of the United States and north to southern Canada. The potatoes were used by the Incas, and chocolate by the Aztecs.

Genetics

Schematic representation of gene flow to maternal transmission (mtDNA) within and outside of Beringia, from 25,000 years ago until today. Schematic illustration of maternal gene flow within and outside of Beringia. The colors of the arrows correspond to the approximate chronology of events described in the legend colors. At the initial peopling of Beringia (shown in yellow) was followed by a standstill period before the rapid migration of the ancestors of Native Americans throughout the New World while others headed west Beringia as evidenced by the spread of maternal lineages-C1a-west. More recently (in green) genetic exchange was indicated by a return migration of the A2a gene to Siberia and spread of gene D2a north-eastern North America after the initial peopling of the New World.

The haplogroup most commonly associated with Native Americans is the Haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) . The DNA of the Y chromosome is distinguished from other chromosomes because most of the Y chromosome is unique and does not recombine during meiosis. This has the consequence that the historical changes can be easily studied . The model indicates that Native Americans have experienced two episodes well characterized at the genetic level, first the first peopling of the Americas , and then the European colonization of the Americas ^, . The first is the factor that determines the number of lines of genes and haplotypes that are present in Amerindian populations today .

The installation of the man in the New World occurred from the coast of the Bering Sea , with an initial stage there are 20,000 years in Beringia for the original population ^, . The diversity and distribution of micro-satellite Y-specific lineages of South America indicates that certain American Indian populations have remained isolated since the first colonization of the region . The Na-Dene , the Inuit and Alaskan natives were carriers of mutations of haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) , yet they were distinct from other Indians with mutations of mitochondrial DNA ^{, ,} . This suggests that the indigenous regions of the far northern North America and Greenland are from immigrant populations later .

See also

• Pre-Columbian transoceanic contacts
• Demographic history of Native Americans
• List of indigenous peoples of the Americas
• Indians
• Pre-Columbian Art
• Pre-Columbian mythology
• Theories of the first peopling of America

Notes

• (In) This article is partially or entirely from the article in English entitled " a href = "http://en.orgPre-Columbian_era?oldid=357146042" class = "external text" rel = "nofollow"> Pre-Columbian era (see the list of authors )

1. Study Confirms Bering land bridge flooded Later Than Previously Believed Cyberwest online, July 1996
2. Bering Land Bridge National Park System U.S.
3. Chaw poop join arsenal in Archaeology , University of Wisconsin. Retrieved on 2009-11-17
4. . First American , Southern Methodist University, David J. Meltzer, BA, MA, Ph.D.
5. Nelson JR Fagundes, "Mitochondrial Population Genomics Supports a Single Pre-Clovis Origin With A Coastal Route pour la Peopling of the Americas", in American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 82, ^No. 3, 2008, p. 583-592
6. Beginnings to 1500 CE , Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples
7. Atlas of the Human Journey , National Genographic
8. (en) Indians in the Americas: The Untold Story References
   • Brown, Michael D., "mtDNA haplogroup X: An ancient link Between Europe / Western Asia and North America?" In American Journal of Human Genetics , Cambridge, MA, Cell Press , vol. 63, ^No. 6, December 1998 p. 1852-1861 ( ISSN 0002-9297 ) Bibliography
     • Nicholas Saunders , Ancient Americas - the great civilizations, Sutton Publishing, Thrupp ( UK ), 2004.
     • Charles C. Mann , Marina Boraso (trans.), 1491. New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus, Albin Michel, 2007, ( ISBN 9782226175922 )
     • Adine Gavazzi, Beatrice Velarde, pre-Columbian Andes, Editions Fernand Hazan, 2010, ( ISBN 9782754104630 )

     External Links

     • Central Andes Prehistoric Sequence
     • Pre Columbian textiles - Virtual Museum of Textile Arts
     • McGuiness Publishing site are pre-Columbian archaeological topics
     • Arqueologia Iberoamericana - Open Access International Scientific Journal Devoted To The archaeological study of the American and Iberian peoples. It contains Numerous research articles on Pre-Columbian America.

     Links in French

     • (En) (es) Journal of the Society of Americanists , scientific journal devoted to corporations and Native American cultures

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